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COMMERCIAL 
GEOGRAPHY 


COMMERCIAL 
GEOGRAPHY 


BY 
EDWARD   VAN    DYKE    ROBINSON 

Formerly  Professor  of  Economics,  Columbia  University,  and 

Principal  Central  High  School,  St.  Paul.     Author 

of   "War  and   Economics    in   History   and 

in    Theory, "    "  The   Development   of 

Agriculture    in   Minnesota" 


RAND  McNALLY  &  COMPANY 

CHICAGO  ^■l■-\\■  ^■'Ji^'^ 


Copyright,  igio 

By  E.  V.  Robinson 

Edition  of  1920 


Chicago 


J-20 


n: 


PREFACE 

"Can  geography  be  taught  so  as  to  make  students  think?" — Jowett. 

THIS  question,  propounded  by  the  translator  of  Plato's 
works,  suggests  the  doubt  felt  by  all  who  hold  the  dis- 
ciplinary or  culture  theory  of  education,  in  regard  to 
the  so-called  "practical"  subjects  in  the  curriculum.  The 
question  is  one  which  must  be  fairly  met  and  answered  if 
these  subjects  are  to  be  accepted  as  truly  educational  in 
character. 

In  the  case  of  physical  geography,  much  advance  has  been 
made  toward  a  truly  scientific,  and  therefore  disciplinary, 
method  of  treatment.  But  in  the  case  of  commercial  geogra- 
phy, less  progress  has  been  made  because  the  nature  and  scope 
of  the  subject  have  been  frequently  misapprehended,  especially 
in  English-speaking  lands. 

Commercial  geography  seems  first  to  have  appeared  during 
the  1 8th  century  in  schools  patronized  by  the  trading  classes, 
under  the  name  of  Trader's  Geography  ( Kaufman nsgeog- 
raphie,  Handelsgeographie).  The  subject  matter  comprised 
unrelated  scraps  of  information  concerning  anything  and 
everything  "useful  for  a  merchant  to  know,"  with  special 
reference,  however,  to  transportation  and  trade.  It  was  from 
this  class  of  works  that  the  name  commercial  geography  was 
borrowed;  and  by  reason  of  this  origin,  commercial  geography 
has  tended  to  deal  with  accomplished  facts  rather  than  causes, 
and  with  the  movement  or  circulation  of  goods  rather  than 
the  fundamental  matter  of  production.  Books  of  this  type, 
lacking  a  causal  or  other  rational  interpretation  for  their 
masses  of  empirical  facts,  are  filled  with  dollars  and  bushels 
and  tons  in  lieu  of  principles.  Clearly,  the  memorizing  of 
isolated  facts  and  unrelated  statistics  cannot  make  students 
think,  nor  is  it,  in  any  proper  sense  of  the  word,  educational. 

Cv) 


VI  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

On  the  other  hand,  those  who  have  sought  to  rationalize 
the  subject  have  as  a  rule  proceeded  on  the  assumption  that 
everything  must  be  explained,  if  it  is  to  be  explained  at  all, 
in  terms  of  physical  environment.  The  attempt,  however, 
to  explain  the  immensely  complex  distribution  of  'industries 
by  one  set  formula — the  influence  of  environment — results 
in  innumerable  forced,  artificial  explanations  which  do  not 
really  explain.  In  the  end,  after  the  geographical  factor  has 
thus  been  seriously  overworked,  the  usual  upshot  of  the 
matter  is  a  relapse  into  the  old  plan  of  piling  fact  upon  fact, 
figure  upon  figure,  without  any  serious  attempt  at  explanation. 
The  reader  familiar  with  books  on  commercial  geography  will 
readily  recall  cases  in  point. 

In  these  circumstances,  it  becomes  necessary  to  raise  the 
fundamental  question:  What  is  commercial  geography?  What 
is  its  piirpose,  scope,  and  appropriate  method  of  treatment? 

The  purpose  of  commercial  geography,  as  the  author 
conceives  it,  is  to  explain,  in  terms  of  all  the  factors  involved, 
the  geographic  division  of  labor.  More  briefly,  commercial 
geography  is  the  study  of  the  localization  of  industries. 

The  factors  involved  are  not  only  nature,  but  also  man  and 
capital  goods;  for  land  (or  natural  resources),  labor,  and  tools 
or  machinery  of  some  sort  are  indispensable  to  every  kind  of 
production  other  than  that  of  the  bare-handed  savage  who 
merely  appropriates  whatever  nature  provides.  It  follows 
that  any  variation  in  the  supply,  or  efficiency,  or  cost  of 
either  labor  or  capital  goods  will  affect  the  localization  of 
industries  quite  as  directly  as  will  differences  in  natural 
resources  or  climate.  There  are  consequently  three  distinct 
sets  of  controls — the  natural,  the  human,  and  the  economic — 
which  jointly  determine  the  localization  of  industries;  and 
commercial  geography  dare  not  neglect  any  one  of  them  on 
penalty  of  becoming  merely  a  mass  of  disconnected  facts. 

This  is  true  for  the  reason  that  while  natural  resources  are 
due  to  nature,  products  are  due  to  man;  and  the  individual 
man,  on  whom  in  the  last  analysis  all  production  depends, 


PREFACE  Vn 

takes  nature  into  account  precisely  as  he  does  the  factor  of 
labor  or  capital,  that  is  to  say,  only  in  so  far  as  it  enables  him 
to  produce  more  goods  of  a  certain  kind,  or  at  less  cost.  It  is 
only  as  nature  thus  becomes  transmuted  into  human  motives 
of  an  economic  sort  that  it  effectively  controls  industry. 

Commercial  geography,  introducing  economic  considerations 
and  economic  modes  of  reasoning,  is  consequently  the  point 
of  contact  between  the  group  of  sciences  dealing  with  nature 
and  the  group  deahng  with  human  society ;  yet  it  is  not  a  mere 
mixture  of  geography  and  economics.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
a  unified  scientific  discipline  so  long  as  it  deals  with  all  such 
facts,  and  only  such  facts,  as  can  be  shown  to  have  relation 
to  the  localization  of  industry ;  for  unity  of  purpose  and  view- 
point constitute  the  unity  of  every  science. 

In  view  of  its  purpose,  commercial  geography  has  in 
general  no  concern  with  the  machinery  of  exchange,  the 
technique  of  trade,  or  industrial  processes,  unless  (as 
occasionally  happens)  some  of  these  become  factors  in  the 
localization  of  industry.  Still  less  is  commercial  geography 
concerned  with  the  description  of  industries,  city  by  city, 
which  is  the  proper  function  of  a  gazetteer.  There  is  in  fact 
no  reason  for  so  much  as  naming  cities  in  commercial  geogra- 
phy except  as  they  illustrate  some  general  principle  relating 
to  the  localization  of  industries. 

The  purpose  and  scope  of  the  subject  in  turn  indicate  the 
appropriate  method  of  treatment.  The  control  of  industries 
by  physical  environment  is  logically  first,  since  it  underlies 
and  conditions  all  others  even  when,  as  sometimes  happens, 
other  controls  have  become  predominant.  For  this  reason, 
the  scientific  treatment  of  commercial  geography  must  begin 
with  the  natural  control  of  industry.  For  the  same  reason, 
after  the  general  or  systematic  treatment  of  controls,  a  regional 
treatment  properly  follows.  Relief,  soil,  climate,  and  natural 
resources  present  striking  differences  in  different  regions, 
and  only  by  a  regional  treatment  can  these  differences  be 
analyzed  and  their  effect  appreciated.      Finally,  there  is  the 


Vin  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

added  advantage  in  a  regional  treatment  that  the  connection 
of  economic  activities  with  the  soil  is  more  obvious,  and  that 
the  problem  of  the  localization  of  industries  is,  therefore, 
relatively  simple  and  concrete.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
the  intensive  regional  study  of  the  world,  or  of  some  consider- 
able part  of  it,*  logically  precedes  and  forms  the  training  for 
the  broader  and  more  complex  generalizations  involved  in  the 
study  of  the  great  world  industries. 

The  present  work  has  been  written  in  the  belief  that  the 
type  of  commercial  geography  herein  indicated  can  assuredly 
be  taught  "so  as  to  make  students  think." 

The  author  is  indebted  to  many  friends  and  critics  for 
valuable  suggestions:  notably  to  Professor  Richard  E.  Dodge, 
of  Teachers  CoUege,  New  York;  Professor  T.  N.  Carver,  of 
Harvard  University;  Professor  Isaiah  Bowman,  Director  and 
Librarian  of  the  American  Geographical  Society;  Professor 
M.  S.  W.  Jefferson,  of  the  Michigan  State  Normal  School  at 
Ypsilanti;  Professor  J.  F.  Chamberlain,  of  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Los  Angeles;  Mr.  Wm.  B.  Guitteau,  Supt.  of  Schools 
at  Toledo,  Ohio;  Mr.  W.  N.  Ferris,  of  the  Ferris  Institute  at 
Big  Rapids,  Mich. ;  Mr.  Dwight  W.  Edwards,  of  the  Princeton 
Mission  in  Peking;  also  to  Supt.  D.  Lange,  Mr.  H.  W.  Schmidt, 
Supervisor  of  Schools,  Dr.  F.  C.  Miller,  of  the  Central  High 
School,  and  Mr.  E.  N.  Bonnell  of  the  John  A.  Johnson  High 
School,  all  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.  Special  thanks  are  due  to  Pro- 
fessor C.  D.  Allin,  of  the  University  of  Minnesota,  who  read 
the  proof  with  great  care  and  made  many  penetrating  criticisms. 
It  goes  without  saying,  however,  that  the  author  is  solely 
responsible  for  the  views  expressed. 

^It  is  worthy  of  note  in  this  connection  that  both  the  Committee  of 
Nine  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  which  reported  at  Los 
Angeles  in  1909,  and  also  the  committee  of  the  Association  of  Ameri- 
can Geographers,  which  reported  at  the  1909  meeting,  expressed  strong 
dissatisfaction  with  the  systematic  method  even  in  physical  geography. 
(See  Journal  of  Geography,  March,  1910.) 


NOTE   TO   EDITION   OF    1915 

In  view  of  the  rapid  changes  in  modern  industry,  it  has 
seemed  desirable  to  make  a  thorough  revision  based  on  the 
United  States  census  of  1910  and  later  statistics,  coming  down 
in  each  case  to  the  latest  available  year.  The  same  plan  has 
been  followed  in  the  sections  dealing  with  other  countries. 

This  has  necessitated  numerous  changes  alike  in  the  text, 
the  diagrams,  and  the  maps.  On  the  whole,  however,  it  is  a 
striking  fact  that  nearly  all  of  the  generalizations  are  as  appli- 
cable to-day  as  when  first  written.  This  fact  conclusively 
demonstrates  that  there  is  a  durable  content  to  commercial 
geography  which  is  but  little  affected  even  by  the  kaleidoscopic 
changes  of  modern  industry,  and  in  this  fact  lies  its  justification 
as  a  scholastic  discipline. 

Thanks  are  due  to  various  correspondents  who  have  called 
the  author's  attention  to  pertinent  facts,  and  especially  to 
Professor  E.  Dana  Durand,  former  Director  of  the  United 
States  Census  Bureau,  who  submitted  suggestions  touching  the 
chapters  on  the  United  States,  and  also  read  proof  on  these 
chapters. 

The  author,  however,  assumes  full  responsibility  for  all 
statements  and  conclusions. 

August  2,  1 91 5. 

NOTE   TO   EDITION   OF    1920 

World  relations  both  industrial  and  commercial  have  been 
so  vitally  affected  by  the  World  War  as  to  make  necessary 
a  careful  revision  of  the  text  and  the  addition  of  a  chapter 
bearing  directly  on  the  far-reaching  changes  in  geography  and 
economics  that  have  taken  place  in  various  quarters  of  the 
globe.  The  work  of  revision  has  been  accomplished  through 
the  assistance  of  widely  recognized  specialists  in  these  sub- 
jects. All  information  available  to  date  of  publication  has  been 
utilized,  but  readjustments  are  still  in  progress. 

October  15,  iq2q. 


(ix) 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface v 

List  of  the  Maps xi 


PART  1.     THE  GROWTH  AND  FACTORS  OF  COMMERCE 

I.  The  Beginnings  of  Commerce      .... 

II.  The  Mediterranean  Age  of  Commerce 

III.  How  Commerce  Depends  on  Land  and  Sea 

IV.  How  Commerce  Depends  on  Climate    . 
V.  How  Commerce  Depends  on  Man    . 

VI.  How  Commerce  Depends  on  Economic  Forces 

VII.  The  Development  of  Transportation  . 

VIII.  The  Principal  Raw  Materials  of  Commerce 


IX. 
X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX, 

/XXI'. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVI. 


I 

7 

15 
29 

39 
49 
59 

7« 


FART  II.     CONTINENTS  AND  COUNTRIES 

The  Making  of  the  United  States 98 

The  North  Atlantic  Section 109 

The  Southern  Section 130 

The  North  Central  Section 150 

The  Western  Section 170 

The  United  States  in  the  Markets  of  the  World   .  '196 

American  Expansion  in  the  Pacific 210 

American  Expansion  in  the  Caribbean      ....  229 

Canada  and  Newfoundland 243 

Middle  America  and  the  West  Indies       ....  254 

Tropical  South  America 268 

Temperate  South  America 280 

Oceania  and  Australasia 291 

Japan  and  Chosen  (Korea) 300 

The  Chinese  Republic 310 

'Southern  Asia 324 

Western  Asia 335 

Africa  '.<> 344 

The  Balkan  Peninsula  and  Roumania       ....  360 

Other  Mediterranean  Peninsulas 371 

Austria,  Hungary  and  Switzerland 381 

France 390 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 398 

The  Lesser  North  Sea  Nations 407 

Germany 418 

Russia  and  Her  Former  Possessions 430 

World  Industries  and  Commerce 440 

The  World  War 456 


PART  III.     APPENDIX 


Reference  Tables 
Index  .      .      . 


(X) 


LIST   OF   MAPwS 

FIGURE 

Ancient  and  mediaeval  trade  routes  to  the  Orient 3 

MeditEval  trade  routes  to  the  north  from  the  Mediterranean 4 

Part  of  English  Harbor,  Fanning  Island 10 

Pago  Pago  Harbor,  Tutuila,  Samoa 11 

Density  of  population  of  the  world  per  square  mile 13 

Commercial  highways  of  the  world 14 

Mean  annual  rainfall  and  prevailing  winds  over  land  and  sea 15 

Temperature  belts  of  the  world 16 

Natural  vegetation  belts  of  the  world 17 

Weather  map,  July  7,  1915 21a 

Distribution  of  ocean  currents  of  world 21b 

Standard  time  belts  in  the  United  States 23 

Trolley  lines  in  the  Middle  West 32 

Telegraph,  cable,  and  postal  routes 52 

North  America 33 

Physical  divisions  of  the  United  States 54 

Temperature  belts  in  the  United  States  for  July  and  January' 56 

Mean  annual  rainfall  in  the  United  States 57 

The  density  of  population  per  square  mile  in  the  United  States 58 

Early  highways  to  the  West 59 

Areas  originally  wooded  and  National  forest  reserves 60 

United  States 61 

Inland  water  ways  of  the  United  States 62 

Glacial  soils  in  the  United  States 63 

Fishing  banks  of  the  North  Atlantic  adjacent  to  North  America  ....  65 

Distribution  of  hay  and  forage  crop 66 

Long  distance  transmission  of  electric  power  from  Niagara  Falls 68 

Coal  fields  of  the  United  States 70 

Oil  and  gas  fields  of  the  United  States 71 

Boston  Harbor 74 

New  York  Harbor 76 

Subways  and  tunnels,  New  York,  uniting  Long  Island,  Manhattan, 

and  New  Jersey 77 

Life  zones  in  North  America 7^ 

Distribution  of  tobacco  crop 82 

Distribution  of  cotton  crop 85 

Alabama  coal  and  iron  region 92 

New  Orleans  Harbor 9^ 

Yield  of  all  grains  per  square  mile 96 

The  westward  migration  of  centers  of  ])opulation,  agriculture,  and 

manufactures 9^ 

Lake  Superior  iron  and  copper  districts 99 

Stock  ranges  of  the  West 1^5 

Irrigated  lands  in  the  West i"'"* 

Relief  map  of  the  Lower  Colorado  Valley 1 1  ^ 

Dry  land  areas "  .^ 

Dry  land  farming.     Districts  producing  durum  wheat 114 

Location  of  principal  mineral  deposits  in  the  West 116 

The  early  highways  to  the  Pacific '•-4 

Artificial  harbor  at  San  Pedro '-'' 

(xi) 


xii  List  of  Maps 

FIGURE 

Density  of  railways  in  the  United  States 127 

Areas  in  the  United  States  producing  commercial  staples 128 

Alaska 129 

Value  of  all  crops  in  the  United  States 133 

Value  of  minerals  raised  per  square  mile  in  the  United  States 137 

Proportional  value  and  density  of  manufactures  per  square  mile  in  the 

United  States 140 

Fisheries  and  minerals  of  Alaska 144 

The  Hawaiian  Islands 149 

Honolulu  and  Pearl  Harbor 152 

Samoa .    1 53 

Guam 1 54 

The  site  of  Manila 1 59 

Porto  Rico  and  its  dependencies 160 

Cuba 164 

The  Panama  Canal 167 

Possible  hours  of  sunshine  in  July 171 

Dominion  of  Canada  and  Newfoundland ! 180 

South  America 181 

Mexico 182 

Central  America  and  the  West  Indies 194 

Oceania 1 95 

The  Philippine  Islands 196 

Japan 199 

Races  of  man 200 

Asia 201 

Russian  Empire,  191 4.  .  .v 202 

China 209 

Syria  and  Meso7)Otamia 228 

The  principal  languages  of  commerce 229 

Africa 230 

Methods  of  using  the  soil 231 

British  Isles 238 

Europe,  1914 239 

Density  of  population  of  Europe 240 

Rainfall  of  Europe 241 

Balkan  Peninsula  and  Roumania 242 

Italy 244 

The  Iberian  Peninsula 246 

Austria-Hungary,  1914 248 

Switzerland 250 

France 253 

Principal  European  fishing  banks 256 

Scandinavian  countries 258 

The  Low  countries 263 

The  German  Empire  and  Luxemburg,  1914 267 

Coal  and  iron  fields  of  Central  Europe 268 

Mittel-Eurojja 293 

Europe  in  1 920 294 

Alsace-Lorraine  before  and  after  1871 295 

Austria-Hungary  and  Its  Peoples 296 

Nationalities  in  Turkey 297 

The  Partitions  of  Poland,  1772-1795 298 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw  and  Its  Final  Disposition 299 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

.i'.  .S'.  Kroonland  in  Caillard  {Culehra)   Cut. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

PART  I 
THE    GROWTH    AND    FACTORS   OF    COMMERCE 

I— THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  COMMERCE 

I.  The  Origin  of  Barter.  Commerce  began  in  the  form  of 
barter,  '^nis  was  at  first  merely  an  exchange  of  gifts;  but 
the  idea  of  getting  a  bargain,  or  at  least  an  equivalent 
value,  soon  appeared.  Men  of  neighboring  tribes,  though 
often  at  war,  would  then  meet  near  the  boundaries  of  their 
tribal  territories  for  barter,  much  as  Northern  and  Southern 
pickets  "swapped"  coffee  and  tobacco  during  our  Civil  War, 
In  the  early  ages  of  the  world  this  was  everywhere  the 
common  method  of  trade,  and  it  continued  in  the  Pacific 
islands  down  to  the  coming  of  the  first  white  explorers,  who 
found  an  exchange  of  "gifts"  generally  expected. 
'  The  practice  of  barter  lacked,  indeed,  the  excitement  of 
the  plundering  raids  which  all  tribes  had  been  wont  to  make 
into  the  territories  of  their  neighbors.  It  had,  however,  the 
undeniable  advantage  that  it  profited  both  parties  and,  inci- 
dentally, that  no  heads  were  broken.  In  time  it  therefore 
became  increasingly  prevalent,  imtil  finally  those  favorably 
situated  for  trade  took  it  up  as  a  regular  business.  Such  are 
the  trading  tribes  of  Africa,  familiar  to  every  reader  of  Stanley. 

2.  The  Origin  of  Markets  and  Fairs.  The  place  where 
people  met  for  trade  became,  in  time,  the  market;  and  this 
was  commonly  rendered  neutral  territory  by  being  put  under 
the  protection  of  the  gods,  especially  such  as  were  vener- 
ated by  several  tribes.  Breaches  of  the  peace  thus  became 
offenses  against  the  gods.  This  practice  explains  the  early 
connection  between  markets  and  religious  sanctuaries. 

(i) 

2 


a  >  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Moreover,  at  points  where  religious  festivals  were  held, 
which  drew  people  together  from  distant  regions,  periodical 
markets  or  fairs  commonly  developed.  Thus  Olympia,  the 
seat  of  the  greatest  religious  festival  of  ancient  Greece, 
became  also  an  important  seat  of  periodical  trade;  and  at 
Mecca,  during  the  annual  pilgrimage,  occurs  the  greatest 
fair  of  the  Mohammedan  world. 

3.  Trade  among  Hunters  and  Fishers.i  So  long  as  all 
members  of  a  tribe  lived  by  the  chase,  they  all  had  sub- 
stantially the  same  kinds  of  goods,  and  consequently  had 
little  to  barter  with  one  another.  Moreover,  the  food  supply 
obtained  by  hunting  was  too  scanty  and  uncertain  to  support 
many  people  in  any  one  place.  In  these  circumstances,  trade 
was  limited  to  natural  products  found  only  in  certain  places, 
such  as  salt,  native  metals,  stone  suitable  for  tools  or  weapons, 
and  shells  prized  for  ornaments.  These  articles  were  passed 
from  tribe  to  tribe  without  the  intervention  of  a  special 
trading  class.  In  this  manner  jade  axes  from  central  Asia 
early  reached  western  Europe,  and  copper  from  the  Lake 
Superior  region  was  widely  circulated  throughout  America 
before  the  white  man  came. 

Fishing  tribes,  on  the  other  hand,  having  a  more  con- 
stant food  supply,  settled  in  compact  and  relatively  perma- 
nent villages.  A  class  of  expert  boat  builders  arose  who 
received  their  pay  in  fish.  This  was  the  beginning  of  division 
of  labor,  and  consequently  of  domestic  trade.  Finally,  having 
learned  the  secrets  of  the  sea  as  fishermen,  fishing  peoples 
readily  developed  into  seafaring  and  commercial  peoples. 
Thus  the  Phoenicians,  the  most  daring  sailors  and  greatest 
traders  of  the  ancient  world,  began  their  career  as  fishermen. 

4.  Trade  among  Shepherds.  In  the  Old  World,  where 
animals  suitable  for  domestication  most  abounded,  the 
tribes  of  the  grass-bearing   plains  and  plateaus  had  become 

'This  discussion  does  not  mean  that  there  is  a  fixed  order  of 
economic  stages  through  which  all  civilized  peoples  have  passed. 
The  intention  is  merely  to  show  the  connection  between  commerce 
and  the  predominant  mode  of  livelihood. 


BEGINNINGS    OF  COMMERCE  3 

shepherds  long  before  the  dawn  of  history.  The  earliest  tradi- 
tions of  the  Mediterranean  countries  consequently  reveal  a 
pastoral  mode  of  life,  so  vividly  portrayed  in  the  biblical 
account  of  Abraham.  Pastoral  pursuits  still  prevail  through- 
out the  vast  regions  in  Asia  and  Africa  that  lack  rainfall 
sufficient  for  agriculture,  and  likewise  in  the  "frozen  desert" 
of  the  North,  where  the  reindeer  has  been  domesticated. 

These  ancient  shepherd  peoples  (Fig.   i)  around  the  Medi- 
terranean could  have  little  trade  of  their  own,  either  domestic 


Fig. 


Camp  of  nomadic  shepherds  in  Asia. 


or  foreign.  They  all  followed  substantially  the  same  mode 
of  life;  and  they  had  little  surplus  for  export,  because  their 
herds  and  flocks  barely  met  their  own  needs.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  knew  the  desert  as  fishermen  know  the  sea;  and, 
when  caravan  trade  began  to  develop,  their  beasts  of  burden 
gave  them  every  facility  for  taking  part  in  it  as  middlemen. 
This  was  especially  true  of  those  who  had  camels,  well  named 
"the  ships  of  the  desert."  (Fig.  2.)  For  this  reason  the 
Arabs,  in  spite  of  their  plundering  proclivities,  have  always 
been  an  important  factor  in  the  commerce  of  western  Asia. 
5.  Trade  among  Tillers  of  the  Soil.  Agriculture — that  is, 
tillage  of  the  soil — first  developed  in  the  great  alluvial  valleys 


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BEGINNINGS    OF  COMMERCE  5 

of  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia,  where  the  soil  was  wonderfully 
fertile,  the  climate  was  warm,  and  some  of  the  seed-bearing 
grasses,  now  known  as  cereals,  grew  wild.  Even  among 
hunting  tribes,  the  women  commonly  gather  some  vegetable 
food;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  women  were  the  first 
to  till  the  soil.  The  men  long  continued  to  despise  agricul- 
ture, though  they  deeply  appreciated  its  fruits,  as  was  the 
case  with  the  maize  crops  raised  by  the  Indian  squaws. 

This  change  in  the  food  supply  from  herds  to  crops  worked 
a  revolution  in  the  conditions  of  human  life.  Hunters  had 
of  necessity  lived  from  hand  to  mouth — a  feast  to-day  and  a 
famine  to-morrow — without  time  or  thought  for  the  future. 
Even  shepherds  had  been  ever  on  the  move  in  search  of  fresh 
pasturage.  Agriculture,  however,  yielding  a  large  amount  of 
food  per  acre,  could  feed  a  dense  and  settled  population. 
Tillage  of  the  soil  thus  made  possible  for  the  first  time  the 
growth  of  manufacturing  and  commercial  cities. 

At  favorable  points  in  these  valleys,  especially  where 
overland  routes  crossed  the  rivers,  great  cities  consequently 
developed,  and  their  population  acquired  astonishing  skill 
in  hand  work  of  all  sorts.  Domestic  trade  flourished,  exchang- 
ing the  products  of  town  and  country.  Great  engineering 
works  were  executed,  especially  for  irrigation  purposes, 
which  modern  engmeering  skill  can  hardly  surpass.  And 
powerful  empires,  the  first  known  to  history,  arose.  This 
was  the  so-called  Fluvial  or  "Valley"  stage  of  civiUzation, 
associated  with  the  Nile,  Euphrates,  and  Tigris  rivers.  In 
contrast  to  it  are  the  later  Mediterranean  stage,  when  civili- 
zation centered  about  the  Inland  (Mediterranean)  Sea,  and 
the  present  Oceanic  stage,  when  civilization  reaches  out  to 
embrace  the  world. 

6.  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia.  The  isolation  of  these  val- 
leys, girt  about  as  they  were  by  deserts  and  mountains,  liad 
favored  the  development  of  agriculture,  for  it  in  a  measure 
hindered  invasion.  Isolation,  however,  was  not  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  foreign  commerce.      In    Egypt,    as   in    China, 


6  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

it  even  gave  rise  to  a  strong  spirit  of  exclusiveness  and  to  an 
unreasoning  attachment  to  ancient  customs.  This  spirit  threw 
the  foreign  trade  of  Egypt,  when  it  finally  did  develop,  largely 
into  the  hands  of  the  Phoenicians  and,  in  later  times,  the 
Greeks.  1 

Mesopotamia  was  far  less  isolated  than  Egypt.  The 
Tigris,  with  its  branching  valleys,  gave  access  to  the  North 
and  East;  the  Euphrates,  reaching  almost  to  the  headwaters 
of  the  Orontes,  bound  the  country  even  more  closely  to  the 
West.  This  region  therefore  became  the  meeting  place  (before 
2000  B  C.)  of  the  East  and  the  West;  and  here  a  great  foreign 
commerce,  using  money  as  a  medium  of  exchange,  first 
sprang  up.  Along  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  and  the  caravan 
roads  running  east  and  west  from  these  rivers,  many  great 
commercial  cities  have  flourished  in  different  ages:  Nineveh, 
Babylon,  Seleucia,^  Ctesiphon,  Bagdad,  on  the  rivers;  Sidon, 
Tyre,  Beirut,  and  many  others  on  the  Mediterranean  coast 
where  the  caravan  routes  reached  the  sea;  Damascus,  Palmyra, 
Aleppo,  in  oases  midway  between.      (Fig.  3.) 

Many  of  these  cities  are  now  but  mounds  of  earth  amid  the 
unutterable  desolation  of  the  Mesopotamian  plain,  or  else  lie 
buried  beneath  the  shifting  sands  of  the  desert.  The  dis- 
covery (1498)  of  the  sea  route  to  India,  which  in  the  main 
superseded  caravan  trade,  dealt  a  heavy  blow  to  this  whole 
region;  and  its  ruin  was  completed  by  the  Suez  Canal  (1869). 
Nevertheless,  the  natural  routes  of  overland  trade  remain; 
and  the  railways  which  European  engineers  have  surveyed 
through  Turkey  and  Persia  follow  the  paths  bleached  with 
bones  from  the  countless  caravans  of  ages  past. 

'See  Cunningham,  Western  Civilization,  vol.  i,  pp.  14,  16,  24,  44,  45, 
54;    Day,  History  of  Commerce,  pp.  9,  10. 

'Seleucia  was  the  commercial  center  under  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
(until  A.  D.  198);  Ctesiphon  under  the  New  Persian  Empire  (A.  D. 
198-635)*  Bagdad  under  the  Arabs  (after  762  A.  D.). 


II— THE  MEDITERRANEAN  AGE  OE  COMMERCE 

"Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way." — Bishop  Berkeley. 

7.  The  Phcenicians.  The  Mediterranean  Age  of  Commerce 
began  with  the  Phoenicians  (before  1500  B.  C),  who  were 
essentially  a  seafaring  and  commercial  people — the  first, 
indeed,  who  dared  to  "go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships." 

They  dared  it  because  of  necessity.  Their  home,  the  narrow 
coast  land  of  Syria  north  of  Mount  Carmel,  contained  little 
land  fit  for  tillage,  while  the  giant  "Cedars  of  Lebanon"  at  their 
backs  furnished  timber  for  shipbuilding.  Beginning  as  fisher- 
men (Sidon  m.eans  "the  Fisher  City"),  they  learned  the  secret 
of  extracting  a  valuable  d3'e,  the  famous  "Tyrian  purple"  from 
the  Murex,  a  kind  of  shell  fish.  This  discovery  gave  rise  to  the 
weaving  and  dyeing  of  textiles.  Other  industries  were  also 
established,  especially  glass  making,  for  which  suitable  sands 
were  at  hand,  and  metal  working. 

Metals  exist  only  in  certain  places,  yet  they  are  indispen- 
sable everywhere.  The  need  of  metals  was  therefore  the  first 
motive  of  world  commerce.  For  this  reason  the  Phoenicians 
early  occupied  Cyprus,  noted  for  its  rich  veins  of  copper. 
They  also  settled  (about  iioo  B.  C.)  Gades  (Cadiz)  as  an 
outlet  for  the  silver  and  lead  of  Spain.  They  even  brought 
back  the  tin  of  Britain  to  be  smelted  at  Tyre. 

Finally  they  founded  (850  B.  C.)  the  mighty  colony  of 
Carthage.  For  more  than  five  centuries  thereafter  Carthage 
was  the  mistress  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  waging 
repeated  wars  to  protect  her  commercial  monopoly  against  the 
Greeks  and,  under  Hannibal,  even  endangering  Rome. 

8.  The  Greeks.  The  successors  of  the  Phoenicians  in  the 
commerce  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean  (about  1000  B.  C.) 
were  the  Greeks.  The  nature  of  their  country,  at  once  sterile 
and  abounding  in  harbors,  both  turned  them  from  the  land  and 

C7) 


8  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

invited  them  to  the  sea.  They  consequently  swarmed  forth, 
at  first  toward  Asia  Minor,  then  toward  Africa  and  the  West, 
till  every  shore  from  Massilia  (Marseilles)  eastward  was 
studded  with  Greek  colonies.  When  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (334-323  B.  C.)  had  settled  in  their  favor 
the  long  duel  with  Persia,  Greek  cities  sprang  up  as  if  by 
magic  over  all  western  Asia;  and  Greek  became  the  general 
language  of  commerce,  even  in  Tyre  and  Sidon.  Finally  the 
Romans  in  the  same  year  (146  B.  C.)  incorporated  Greece  in 
the  Roman  Empire  and  destroyed  Carthage,  thereby  opening 
to  Grecian  commerce  the  western  Mediterranean. 

The  principal  commercial  cities  during  the  days  of  Greek 
independence  were  Corinth  and  Athens.  After  Alexander, 
the  center  of  gravity  of  the  Greek  world  moved  eastward. 
Rhodes  soon  superseded  Athens  as  a  center  of  sea-borne 
commerce;  Antioch  on  the  Orontes  drew  the  overland  trade 
from  Mesopotamia;  and  Alexandria  became,  after  the  fall  of 
Carthage,  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  world. 

The  commercial  prosperity  of  Alexandria,  located  in  a 
country  so  isolated  by  nature  as  Egypt,  was  due  to  artificial 
means  of  transportation.  A  good  road  was  built  over  an 
ancient  caravan  trail  from  Coptos  on  the  eastward  bend  of  the 
Nile,  below  the  First  Cataract,  to  Leukos  Limen  (Kosseir)  on 
the  Red  Sea,  and  the  canal  connecting  the  Nile  with  the 
Red  Sea,  which  Seti  I  had  begun,  was  opened  more  than  a 
thousand  years  later  (third century  B.  C.)  by  Ptolemy  11.  This 
forerunner  of  the  Suez  Canal  remained  in  use  until  A.  D.  761. 
Alexandria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  consequently  became 
the  great  distributing  point  for  the  sea-borne  trade  of  the 
Orient.  For  upstream  traffic,  the  northeast  trade  winds  fur- 
nished power,  while  boats  came  down  stream  with  the  current. 
The  staple  imports  of  Egypt  were  silk,  spices,  pearls  and 
other  jewels  from  the  Far  East;  myrrh  and  frankincense 
from  Arabia ;  gold  and  ivory  from  East  Africa.  The  goods 
exported  in  payment  comprised  amber  and  furs  derived  from 
northern   Europe,  also  wine,  glass,  linen,  arms,  and   slaves, 


MEDITERRANEAN  AGE    OF  COMMERCE  9 

besides   much   gold  and  silver.      It   was   thus   essentially  a 
commerce  in  luxuries   and   as   such   enormously  profitable. 

9.  The  Roman  Empire.  Rome  was  an  inland  city  grown 
great  by  centuries  of  conquest.  The  Romans  therefore 
hated  the  sea,  which  ever  remained  for  them  marc  dissociable 
— the  sea  that  separates — and  they  despised  commerce  as  the 
work  of  slaves.  Men  and  money  were  the  only  commodities 
they  deigned  to  handle.  Trade  was  consequently  left  in  the 
main  to  subject  peoples — Greeks,  Syrians,  and  Jews.  Rome 
with  all  its  immense  population  and  wealth  thus  remained  a 
political  rather  than  a  commercial  center,  a  city  "consuming 
much  and  producing  little,"^  supported  in  the  main  by  the 
tribute  (in  grain  or  money)  of  the  provinces.  Only  in  financial 
operations  did  it  hold  a  leading  place. 

In  two  respects,  however.  Rome  rendered  important  ser- 
vices to  commerce.  The  great  military  highways,  radiating 
from  the  Golden  Milestone  in  the  Roman  Forum  to  the  ends 
of  the  empire,  gave  better  facilities  for  overland  trade  than 
ever  existed  elsewhere  before  the  days  of  railways.  And  the 
Pax  Roniana — the  Peace  of  Rome — which  long  reigned  on  all 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  afforded  a  security  for  com- 
merce hitherto  unknown. 

10.  Character  of  Mediaeval  Commerce.  After  the  final 
division  of  the  Roman  Empire  (A.  D.  395),  and  the  fall  of  the 
portion  ruled  from  Italy  (A.  D.  476),  western  Europe  relapsed 
into  barbarism.  Wants  were  consequently  few  and  simple. 
Every  district,  even  every  estate,  was  expected  to  be  self- 
supporting.  Moreover,  there  were  "sea  wolves"  and  "land 
wolves"  to  prey  on  the  luckless  merchant.  The  roads,  never 
being  repaired,  grew  constantly  worse  for  the  next  thousand 
years.  Commerce  was  thus  forced  to  follow  the  rivers ;  and 
when  the  feudal  system  had  split  Europe  into  thousands  of 
petty  states,  there  were  toll  stations  on  the  rivers  every  few 
miles.  In  these  circumstances  only  the  demand  of  the 
nobility  and  clergy  for  luxuries  kept  alive  a  precarious  trade. 

'Cons,  Precis  d' Histoire  du  Commerce,  pp.  59,  64;  Day,  History  of 
Commerce,  p.  26. 


lO  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

11.  Mediaeval  Fairs.  Such  difficulties  in  transportation 
made  it  doubly  necessary  to  fix  certain  dates  when  the  buyers 
and  sellers  of  any  article,  such  as  furs,  could  be  sure  of  meeting. 
This  necessity  gave  rise  to  annual  fairs,  like  those  held  at 
Stourbridge  (Cambridge)  in  England,  at  Frankfurt  and  Leipzig 
in  Germany,  and  at  Troyes  and  other  towns  in  the  French 
province  of  Champagne. 

These  fairs,  like  the  fairs  of  the  ancient  world,  were  usually 
held  in  connection  with  some  religious  festival,  which  served 
to  bring  people  together  and  in  a  measure  to  ward  ofE  hostile 
attacks.  Fairs  formed  the  chief  seats  of  wholesale  trade  until 
increasing  density  of  population  and  ease  of  transportation 
rendered  them  unnecessary.  In  the  less  progressive  parts 
of  the  world,  where  the  railroad,  telegraph,  and  commercial 
traveler  are  little  in  evidence,  fairs  still  retain  their  pristine 
importance.  The  most  important  fair  in  modern  Europe  is 
doubtless  that  of  Nizhniy  Novgorod. 

Even  in  advanced  commercial  countries  there  are  annual 
agricultural  fairs,  and  occasional  international  expositions  or 
"World's  Fairs,"  which  exercise  a  marked  influence  both 
on  education  and  on  commerce. 

12.  The  Levant  before  the  Crusades.  The  Levant, 
embracing  the  lands  washed  by  the  eastern  Mediterranean, 
was  ruled  (after  A.  D.  330)  from  Constantinople.  This 
empire,  Roman  in  name,  Greek  in  language,  reached  the 
climax  of  its  prosperity  and  splendor  during  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries,  while  western  Europe  lay  buried  in  squalor 
and  ignorance. 

The  principal  factor  in  this  prosperity  was  trade  with  the 
Orient,  especially  in  silk,  which  was  imported  raw,  woven 
into  exquisite  fabrics  at  Constantinople  or  Antioch,  and 
exported  again  to  all  parts  of  the  known  world.  During 
the  early  Middle  Ages  (before  A.  D.  1000),  the  bulk  of  the 
raw  silk  came  overland,  because  the  sea  route  from  China  was 
long  and,  for  the  vessels  then  in  use,  extremely  dangerous. 
After  the  Arab  conquest  of  Egypt  (A.  D.  640),  Constantinople, 


MEDITERRANEAN   AGE    OF   COMMERCE  il 

commanding  all  routes  to  the  Far  East  by  way  of  the  Black 
Sea,  succeeded  Alexandria  as  the  undisputed  commercial 
capital  of  the  world.    (Fig.  3.) 

13.  Rise  of  the  Italian  Cities.  After  A.  D.  1000,  a  great 
change  began.  Larger  vessels,  possibly  also  some  crude  form 
of  the  compass,  enabled  the  sea  route  from  China  around 
southern  Asia  to  compete  with  the  overland  routes.  Con- 
stantinople, Bagdad,  and  the  row  of  caravan  cities  eastward 
to  Balkh,  where  the  Chinese  and  Indian  roads  diverged,  at 
once  began  to  stagnate.  Constantinople  also  suffered  from 
the  fact  of  lying  too  far  east  to  serve  the  western  markets 
created  by  the  silver  mines  of  North  Central  Europe,  then 
newly  opened,  or  to  profit  by  the  rising  woolen  and  metal  in- 
dustries of  Italy  and  Flanders  (Belgium). 

For  these  reasons  the  cities  of  Italy  became  at  first  the 
rivals,  then  the  successors,  of  Constantinople.  The  Crusades 
confirmed  their  supremacy,  bringing  them  a  veritable  "com- 
mercial boom"  through  the  demand  for  equipment  and  for 
transportation  by  sea  of  men  and  supplies.  Venice  and 
Genoa  were  even  able  to  pull  down  and  set  up  emperors  at 
Constantinople  precisely  as  the  nations  of  Europe  have  in 
recent  years  striven  for  mastery  at  Peking.  Venice  finally 
became,  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  crusaders  in 
her  service  (1204),  incontestably  the  leading  commercial  city 
in  the  world. 

14.  The  Commerce  of  Northern  Europe.  Since  the 
earliest  times,  the  amber  of  the  Baltic,  the  tin  of  Britain,  and 
the  furs  of  the  northern  forests  had  found  their  way  along  the 
rivers  to  the  Mediterranean.  How  important  furs  were  in 
commerce  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages  the  houses  of  even  the  nobles  and  princes 
entirely  lacked  heat  in  winter.  Furs  were  also  a  staple 
export  to  the  Orient,  being  then  as  now  extensively  worn  by 
the  upper  classes  in  China. 

In  the  later  Middle  Ages  (after  1250),  the  trade  of  the 
North  (Fig.  4)  fell  under  the  control  of  the  Hanse.     This  was  a 


12  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

powerful  league  of  some  ninety  cities,  extending  from 
Bruges  to  Novgorod,  with  its  capital  at  Lubeck.  To  the 
early  exports  were  added  fish,  hides,  silver  and  copper  from 
the  Harz  region,  and  iron  from  Sweden.  The  imports 
were  chiefly   articles  of  luxury,  above  all,  silks  and  spices. 

This  new  commercial  realm,  centered  on  the  Baltic  and 
North  seas,  found  its  chief  outlet  on  the  Mediterranean 
through  the  port  of  Venice.  Along  the  roads  running  north 
from  Venice,  just  as  along  the  Asian  caravan  roads,  there 
flourished  a  series  of  great  commercial  cities  whose  pros- 
perity was  builded  almost  entirely  on  the  oriental  commerce 
that  passed  through  their  gates. 

15.  The  Shifting  of  Trade  Routes.  Ancient  and  mediaeval 
vessels,  being  flat  bottomed,  could  sail  only  with  the  wind,  or 
else  laboriously  work  their  way  against  it  with  huge  oars. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  however,  the  keel, 
invented  probably  by  the  Northmen,  worked  a  revolution 
in  navigation  hardly  less  important  than  has  followed  the  use 
of  steam.  By  enabling  vessels  to  sail  almost  into  the  eye  of 
the  wind,  the  keel  made  possible  for  the  first  time  deep-sea, 
in  place  of  coastwise,  navigation. 

Early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  compass  also  came  into 
general  use  in  the  West.  The  sea  route  from  Italy  to  Flanders 
then  began  to  prevail  decisively  over  the  land  route.  This 
meant  indeed  the  stagnation  of  all  those  cities  which  had 
lived  on  the  overland  trade.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sea 
route,  touching  at  Lisbon  and  the  English  Channel  ports, 
prepared  the  way  for  those  nations  to  enter  the  commercial 
arena  on  their  own  account.  The  great  emporium  for  the 
trade  between  Italy  and  the  North  was  for  several  centuries 
Bruges;  but  later  (after  1442)  Antwerp  took  the  lead  because 
it  was  accessible  to  larger  vessels  and  imposed  fewer  restric- 
tions on  foreign  traders. 

Finally,  the  conquests  of  the  Turks,  fierce  nomads  from 
central  Asia,  who  began  as  hired  soldiers  of  the  Caliphs  and 
ended  as  their  masters,  blocked  up  one  after  another  all  the 


MEDITERRA>JEAN     AGE    OF    COMMERCE  13 

ancient  routes  to  the  East.  First  western  Asia  (1058),  then 
Constantinople  (1453),  and  lastly  Egypt  (1520)  fell  into  their 
hands.  In  the  meantime,  this  virtual  blockade  caused  the 
prices  of  oriental  goods  in  Europe  to  rise  by  leaps  and  bounds, 
thus  offering  enormous  profits  to  any  one  who  should  find  a 
new  and  cheaper  route  to  the  East.  This  condition  of  the 
market  was  the  impelling  motive  of  the  great  voyages  of  dis- 
covery which  ended  the  Mediterranean,  and  introduced  the 
Oceanic  Age  of  Commerce. 

16.  The  World  Faces  the  Atlantic.  When  Vasco  da  Gama 
reached  India  by  sea  (1498),  the  world  changed  front  in  a  day. 
Hitherto  it  had  faced  the  Mediterranean.  On  its  shores 
civilization  had  largely  developed.  There  empires  had  risen 
and  decayed.  There  also  a  succession  of  great  cities,  the 
homes  of  wealth,  learning,  and  art,  had  flourished,  fed  by  the 
never-ceasing  stream  of  commerce  between  the  East  and 
the  West.  Now  for  the  first  time  that  stream  was  diverted 
from  its  previous  course,  and  forthwith  decay  fell  upon  the 
teeming  cities,  and  silence  upon  the  crowded  roads. 

The  same  disaster  overtook  cities  beyond  the  Alps  which 
had  lived  on  the  trade  between  Italy  and  the  North.  Who- 
ever wandered  'in  the  streets  of  picturesque  and  sleepy 
Nuremberg  after  this  trade  had  departed,  where  the  rooks 
wheeled  about  the  gables  that  were  once,  as  Longfellow 
reminds  us,  the  home  of  art  and  song,  learned  in  a  most 
impressive  manner  how  cities  are  made  and  unmade  by  the 
shifting  of  trade  routes.  1 

What  the  Mediterranean  lost  the  Atlantic  gained.  It 
became  henceforth  the  great  highway  of  commerce;  in  its 
ports  the  products  of  the  East  and  West  met  for  exchange. 
The  commercial  supremacy  of  the  world  passed  to  its  shores 
to  be  contested  and  successively  held  by  the  Portuguese, 
Spaniards,  Dutch,  and  English. 

'Could  Longfellow  revisit  Nuremberg  to-day  he  would  find  it  still 
picturesque,  but  no  longer  sleepy.  The  Suez  Canal,  the  Alpine  tunnels, 
and  the  railways  have  made  it  again  the  focus  of  important  trade  routes. 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


17.  Character  of  Modem  Commerce.  With  this  transfer  of 
commercial  supremacy  to  the  Atlantic,  the  Oceanic  Age  began. 
At  that  time  commerce  was  mainly  confined  to  articles  of 


CourteFj  of  Swift  and  Company 

Fig.  5.     Interior  of  a  general  office:     This  suggests  something  of  the  vast 

and  complicated  organization  required  to  Itandle  the 

•  enormous  volume  of  modern  commerce. 

luxury  used  by  the  few;   to-day  it  supplies  the  necessities 

of  all.     This  stupendous  revolution  has  been  brought  about 

by  the  application  of  the  powers  of  Nature  to  the  processes  of 

manufacture  and  transportation^.     The  world  as  we  know  it 

to-day  is  largely  the  creation  of  steam  and  electricity.  (Fig.  5 . ) 

^During  the  last  two  centuries,  according  to  a  recent  estimate,  the  for- 
eign commerce  of  all  commercial  countries  has  increased  as  follows: 


Year 

Millions  of  Dollars 

Year 

Dollars  per  Capita 

1700 

I2S 

1800 

2.31 

I7S0 

250 

1840 

2.93 

l8oo 

1,500 

i860 

6.01 

1000 

20.105 

1900 

13.02 

1913 

40,420 

1913 

24.47 

Ill— HOW  COMMERCE  DEPENDS  ON  LAND  AND  SEA 

"Tell  me  the  geography  of  a  country  and  I  will  tell  you  its  future.'' 

— Victor  Cousin. 

i8.  What  Man  Owes  to  Nature.  No  man  by  taking 
thought  can  add  a  cubit  to  his  stature ;  still  less  can  he  make 
good  any  great  deficiency  in  the  natural  resources  of  his 
country.  Thus  he  can  fish  only  where  there  is  water,  lumber 
only  where  there  are  trees,  mine  only  where  there  are  min- 
erals, devote  himself  to  agriculture,  manufactures,  or  com- 
merce only  where  natural  conditions  render  these  pursuits 
commercially  possible.  For  the  greater  part  of  what  he  enjoys 
man  thus  remains  directly  or  indirectly  the  pensioner  of 
Nature.  Most  justly,  therefore,  and  with  profound  insight 
into  the  relation  of  man  and  the  earth,  did  the  Greeks 
speak  of   "  Mother  Earth." 

19.  Factors  in  the  Natural  Control  of  Industry  and  Com- 
merce. All  aspects  of  Nature  doubtless  react  upon  man  to 
some  extent.  The  factors  however  which  affect  most  directly 
his  mode  of  livelihood  are:  the  character  of  the  soil;  the 
topography  or  surface  features  of  the  earth;  the  coast  line; 
the  climate;  and  the  natural  resources,  notably  fish,  forests, 
grasslands,  minerals,  and  water  power. 

20.  Civilization  Based  on  the  Soil.  The  soil  is  the  founda- 
tion of  all  permanent  prosperity.  Unless  the  soil  be  reason- 
ably fertile,  agriculture  is  impossible;  and  without  agriculture 
there  can  be  no  enduring  civilization  and  therefore  no  exten- 
sive commerce.  Gold  populated  California  and  built  cities 
as  if  by  magic;  but  wheat  and  fruit  have  long  since  become 
the  basis  of  California's  prosperity.  As  with  mining,  so  with 
lumbering;  the  forests  once  cut  away,  the  himber  camps  and 
towns  are  deserted,  and  the  country  relapses  into  wilderness 
until  such  time  as  a  new  forest  shall  have  grown  to  merchant- 
able size,  unless  the  soil  be  fit  for  farming. 

(15) 


i6  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

21.  The  Kinds  of  Soil.  The  soil  comes  in  the  main  from 
rocks  which  have  crumbled  to  pieces  through  long  exposure 
to  the  weather. 

As  to  its  physical  character,  soil  varies  by  almost  imper- 
ceptible gradations  from  coarse  gravel  to  fine  clay.  For 
practical  purposes,  however,  it  is  usually  classified  as  sandy, 
loamy,  or  clayey.  ^ 

A  sandy  soil  consists  for  the  most  part  of  relatively  large, 
rounded  particles,  usually  derived  from  very  hard  rocks.  It 
is  "light"  or  easily  worked;  and  it  is  "warm"  or  readily  heated 
by  the  sun  in  the  spring,  for  which  reason  a  sandy  soil  is  well 
suited  to  early  vegetables.  It  is,  however,  so  porous  that  it 
does  not  hold  rainfall  well;  and  it  is  comparatively  poor  in 
accessible  plant  food. 

A  loamy  soil  is  intermediate  in  character,  containing  both 
sand  and  clay  in  fairly  equal  proportions. 

A  clay  soil  consists  in  the  main  of  very  fine  particles,  derived 
usually  from  shale  or  other  soft  rocks.  Not  being  so  porous 
as  sand  it  holds  water  well,  which  is  an  advantage  in  dry 
regions  or  seasons.  A  clay  soil  is  "heavy"  or  hard  to  work, 
and  is  "cold"  or  slow  to  warm  up  in  the  spring;  but  it  is 
the  most  fertile,  and  the  most  lasting  in  its  fertility,  of  all 
types  of  soil.  The  regions  which  form  the  world's  granaries 
and  those  which  support  the  densest  population  by  agriculture 
have  largely  clay  soils. 

22.  Organic  Matter  in  Soil.  Finally,  the  soil  depends  for 
its  fertility  not  only  on  its  physical  character  and  mineral 
constituents,  but  also  to  perhaps  an  equal  degree  on  the 
organic  matter  which  it  contains.  Undecayed  organic  matter 
(peat)  is  indeed  a  hindrance  to  tillage;  but  decayed  or  decay- 
ing vegetation  (humus)  renders  the  soil  more  open  and 
porous,  so  that  air  and  water  can'  more  easily  reach  the  roots, 
and  it  greatly  increases  the  available  plant  food.  It  is 
largely  owing  to  vegetable  humus  in  the  soil  that  districts 
recently  covered  by  deciduous  forests,  and  likewise  prairies 

'King,  The  Soil,  p.  loo. 


COMMERCE   DEPENDS    ON    LAND   AND    SEA  r; 

where  the  grasses  have  flourished  and  decayed  for  ages,  are 
for  a  time  so  very  fertile  when  brought  under  the  plow. 

23.  Formation   and   Transportation   of   Soil.      As   to   its 

method  of  formation,  soil  is  either  residual  or  transported. 
Residual  soil  was  formed  on  the  spot  from  the  decay  of  the 
rocks  lying  directly  beneath,  and  of  course  varies  in  char- 
acter with  those  rocks.  South  of  the  Ohio,  for  example, 
where  most  of  the  soil  is  residual,  it  is  much  more  fertile  over 
limestone  than  over  sandstone. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world  the  soil  has  been  transported 
far  from  its  place  of  origin  by  running  water,  by  glaciers,  or 
by  the  winds.  The  lower  valleys  of  great  rivers,  for  instance, 
are  commonly  covered  with  alluvial  soil,  deposited  by  the 
rivers  at  flood  time.  Other  vast  areas,  like  most  of  America 
north  of  the  Ohio  River,  have  glacial  soils,  deposited  in 
former  ages  by  melting  glaciers.  Still  other  districts  have 
loess,  or  wind-borne  soil.  For  example,  the  loess  beds  of 
northern  China,  thousands  of  feet  thick,  were  brought  by  the 
prevailing  west  winds  of  winter  from  the  arid  uplands  of  central 
Asia  and  deposited  where  a  moister  climate  was  encountered. 
These  transported  soils,  though  differing  greatly  from  one 
another  in  fertility,  are  alike  in  that  they  usually  contain 
fragments  of  many  kinds  of  rock,  and  are  therefore  less 
quickly  exhausted  by  tillage  than  are  the  residual  soils. 

24.  How  Lowlands  Affect  Agriculture.  The  "everlasting 
hills"  are  not  in  fact  everlasting;  for  every  rain  and  every 
stream  carries  a  load  of  soil  from  the  highlands  toward  the 
lowlands,  lowering  the  one  and  filling  up  the  other.  Even 
the  cloud-capped  mountains  would  eventually  be  worn  down 
almost  to  sea  level  if  the  mountain-building  forces  should 
cease  their  work. 

Lowlands,  being  thus  supplied  with  fine  soil  at  the  expense 
of  the  uplands,  are  the  principal  sources  of  the  world's  food 
supply.  For  this  reason  more  than  three-fourths  of  all  tlie 
people  in  the  world  live  at  elevations  of  less  than  1,000  feet. 
The  most  productive  and  most  densely-peopled  agricultural 

3 


l8  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

regions  are  naturally  the  deltas  and  valleys  of  great  rivers 
like  the  Nile  and  Ganges,  which  constantly  bring  down  fresh 
soil.  Within  the  Tropics,  however,  fertile  river  valleys  are 
frequently  so  unhealthful  as  to  be  very  sparsely  peopled. 
This  is  the  condition  of  the  Amazon  Valley.     (Fig.  13.) 

25.  How  Lowlands  Affect  Transportation  and  Commerce. 
Lowland  rivers,  having  considerable  volume  and  a  slight  fall, 
usually  afford  cheap  transportation,  and  they  can  frequently 
be  connected  by  canals.  The  level  surface  also  favors  railroad 
construction,  unless  too  low  or  too  level  for  good  drainage. 
In  districts  subject  to  overflow,  however,  the  roads  a,nd  even 
the  railways  keep  to  the  ridges,  as  in  parts  of  the  Red  River 
Valley,  where  the  beaches  of  former  Lake  Agassi z  form 
natural   driveways 

Owing  to  their  fertility,  dense  agricultural  population,  and 
cheap  transportation  facilities,  lowlands  are  also  the  principal 
seats  of  manufactures  and  of  commerce. 

26.  How  High  Plains  Affect  Commerce.  High  plains  or 
plateaus  are  frequently  edged  by  mountains  so  that  the  winds 
are  drained  of  moisture  before  reaching  the  plateaus.  In  such 
cases  they  are  suited  for  grazing  rather  than  agriculture,  like 
the  Great  Basin  west  of  the  Rockies,  and  contribute  to  com- 
merce chiefly  wool,  hides,  and  other  animal  products.  But 
plateaus  which  are  fairly  well  watered,  like  those  in  tropical 
America,  sometimes  support  a  dense  agricultural  population. 

Being  relatively  level,  high  plains  hinder  transportation 
only  if  difficult  of  access  from  the  lowlands,  or  if  intersected 
by  a  profound  gorge  like  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado. 
If  too  wide  to  bridge,  such  a  gorge  is  in  fact  impassable  for 
commerce,  and  may  compel  a  detour  of  hundreds  of  miles. 

As  a  rule  transportation  routes  follow  valleys  which  offer 
the  easiest  grades.  But  if  a  plateau  has  been  deeply  cut  into  by 
rivers, roads  and  railways  sometimes  follow  the  divides  between 
the  rivers,  since  these  retain  the  generally  level  surface  of  the 
original  plateau.  The  Allegheny  Plateau  affords  many  illustra- 
tions of  this  principle,  notably  in  eastern  Kentucky. 


COMMERCE  DEPENDS  ON  LAND   AND   SEA 


19 


27.  How  Upland  Valleys  Affect  Agriculture  and  Trans- 
portation. Broad  valleys  and  valley  basins  between  parallel 
mountain  ranges,  being  covered  in  large  part  with  fine  soil 
washed  from  higher 
levels,  are  fertile, 
and  therefore  well 
peopled.  Excellent 
examples  are  the 
"parks"  of  Colo- 
rado. Even  richer 
in  soil  are  the  beds 
of  former  lakes,  like 
the  basin  surround- 
ing Great  Salt  Lake, 
where  the  finest  and 
most  fertile  parti- 
cles of  soil  that 
were  washed  from 
the  surrounding 
uplands  were 
deposited. 

Valleys  that  cut 
across  mountain 
ranges  furnish  the 
usual  routes  of  rail- 
ways (Fig.  6) ,  which 
follow  one  stream 
to  its  head  and 
another  stream 
down  the  opposite 
slope,  crossing  the  intervening  divide  by  tunnel  or  at  the 
lowest  pass.  Like  islands  containing  harbors  in  mid-ocean, 
such  mountain  passes  are  individually  important  in  propor- 
tion  as  they  are  far  apart. 

Where  a  river  cuts  through  a  mountain  range,  the  valley 
usually  contracts  to  a  narrow  water  gap;  and  since  all  trade 


Fig.  6.     How  rivers  prepare  the  way  for 

railways— Royal  Gorge,  Grand  Canon 

of  the  Arkansas. 


20  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

and  travel  up  or  down  the  valley  is  here  brought  to  a  focus, 
a  water  gap  is  apt  to  be  marked  by  a  town  or  city.  A  good 
example  is  Harpers  Ferry,  located  where  the  Potomac  makes 
its  way  through  the  Blue  Ridge.  Sometimes  after  cutting  a 
water  gap,  a  river  is  somehow  diverted  from  its  course  leaving 
what  is  called  a  "wind  gap."  Such  was  the  origin  of  many 
passes  famous  in  history,  like  Cumberland  Gap  between 
Virginia  and  Kentucky.     (Fig.  59.) 

28.  How  Mountains  Afifect  Agriculture  and  Transportation. 
Broken  plateaus  and  mountain  slopes  are  adapted  to  forests 
or  grazing,  rather  than  to  agriculture.  The  soil  is  thin  and  poor 
at  best,  and  if  loosened  by  the  plow,  it  is  speedily  swept  away 
by  the  rains.  Moreover,  machinery  cannot  be- used  to  advan- 
tage on  small  or  rough  fields,  nor  can  crops  be  readily  marketed. 
Farmers  in  such  a  region  consequently  live  a  wretched  life  of 
poverty  and  ignorance  from  generation  to  generation,  retain- 
ing ideas,  tools,  and  methods  long  since  abandoned  in  the  plains. 
On  the  other  hand,  mountain-born  rivers  in  traversing  arid 
regions,  like  those  adjacent  to  the  Rockies,  furnish  water  to 
irrigate  large  tracts  of  land  in  their  valleys. 

Mountains  which  serve  as  watersheds  determine  the  course 
of  rivers  and  river  valleys,  and  therefore,  in  great  measure,  of 
commerce.  Mountains,  moreover,  usually  lack  navigable 
water  ways  and  good  wagon  roads.  They  even  exact  a  heavy 
tribute  from  railroads  in  the  shape  of  expensive  bridges,  rock 
cuts,  tunnels,  snowsheds,  constant  repairs,  extra  engines 
and  fuel,  and  light  train  loads.  Man  is  far  from  having 
conquered  the  mountains  for  purposes  of  transportation,  as 
he  has  conquered  the  plains  and  the  sea. 

29.  Relation  of  Mountains  to  Mining  and  Manufactures. 
Mountain  streams,  fed  by  snows  and  rains  upon  the  higher 
levels  and  descending  with  rapid  current,  usually  furnish 
abundant  water  power. 

Again,  mountains  are  frequently  the  seat  of  mining.  Here 
are  found  the  best  building  materials,  such  as  granite,  slate, 
and  marble.     Here  also  the  ancient  crystalline  rocks,  deeply 


COMMERCE   DEPENDS   ON   LAND   AND   SEA  2  1 

buried  elsewhere,  have  been  brought  to  light  by  upheaval 
and  the  erosion  of  running  water.  It  is  in  such  rocks  that 
the  ores  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  other  metals  usually 
occur.  Furthermore,  the  best  grades  of  coal  are,  as  a  rule, 
found  in  or  near  the  mountains,  because  the  heat  and  pressure 
generated  by  mountain  building  have  driven  off  the  volatile 
parts  of  the  coal,  leaving  a  large  proportion  of  fixed  carbon. 

By  reason  of  water  power,  metals,  and  mineral  fuels,  manu- 
facturing cities  not  infrequently  develop  at  the  foot  of 
mountains.  Thus  Birmingham,  Ala.,  owes  its  existence  to  the 
vast  stores  of  coal  and  iron  in  the  adjacent  hills.      (Fig.  92.) 

30.  How  Mountains  Affect  Climate.  Finally,  lofty  moun- 
tains force  the  air  passing  over  them  to  ascend  and  become 


Pavant  Mrs.    10,000  Feet. 


RAIN-BEARING  WIND 


FILLMORE  5,700  FEET. 

Average  Annual  Rain  13.8  Inches 

DESERET    Q — ^ --^ 

4,600  FEET        T 

Average  Annual  Rain  7.7  Inches 


BASK:  4,000  Icet 


Horizontal  Scale  : 1 Vertical  Scale  :  1^ 


1,000,000  60,000 

Bureau  Plant  Induatrj,  Bulletin  103 

Fig.  7.    Pro-file  sketch  showing  relation  of  mountains  to  rainfall  in  Utah. 

chilled,  thus  causing  rainfall  on  the  side  toward  the  prevail- 
ing winds,  but  an  arid  region  on  the  opposite  side.  (Fig.  7.) 
They  also  break  somewhat  the  force  of  the  winds,  whether 
warm  or  cold.  Mountains  thus  control  in  great  measure  the 
climate,  and  therefore  the  industries,  of  the  neighboring  plains 
for  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  miles.  So  it  is  with  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges. 

31.  Relation  of  Forests  to  Man.  The  forest  primeval 
ranks  almost  with  the  mountains  in  its  effect  o'-  man,  on  his 
mode  of  livelihood,  and  consequently  on  commerce. 


4i  COMMERCIAL    GEOCRAPHY 

To  the  early  settlers  in  America,  the  forest  seemed  merely 
a  hiding  place  for  wild  beasts  and  hostile  Indians.  To  fell  the 
forests  and  let  in  the  light  therefore  came  to  be  regarded 
as  a  conquest  achieved  over  a  common  enemy  of  man  and  of 
civilization.  Something  of  this  feeling  still  persists  on  the 
frontier  and  the  pioneer  in  forested  regions  still  swings  his  ax 
with  vindictive  force,  though  the  forest,  so  far  from  being 
the  enemy,  has  long  since  been  recognized  as  the  best  friend 
of  man.  Nevertheless,  so  rapid  and  so  thorough  has  been 
the  work  of  destruction  that  the  day  is  now  at  hand  in  this 
country  when  the  last  of  the  mighty  forests  prepared  by  Nature 
through  a  thousand  years  will  have  disappeared. 

32.  How  Forests  Affect  Soil,  Water  Power,  and  Navigation. 
Forests  not  only  enrich  the  soil  through  decaying  vegetation, 
but  they  also  protect  it  from  rapid  erosion.  What  is  perhaps 
still  more  important,  the  mat  of  forest  vegetation,  both 
above  and  below  ground,  serves  as  a  sponge  to  absorb 
and  hold  the  rain  and  melting  snow.  The  water  consequently 
sinks  into  the  earth  and  issues  gradually  in  springs ,  in  place  of 
rushing  at  once  into  the  rivers.  In  this  way,  forests  equalize 
the  flow  of  rivers,  moderating  both  floods  and  droughts  and 
conserving  the  rivers  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  water  power, 
and  navigation  during  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

How  important  these  services  are  may  be  judged  from 
the  results  of  deforestation,  especially  in  the  hilly  parts  of  the 
South,  where  the  ground  is  not  protected  by  frost  from  the 
heavy  rains  of  winter.  (Fig.  8.)  One  may  see  there  from 
the  car  window  thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  already 
stripped  of  soil  by  the  rains  and  turned  into  "bad  lands,"  as 
useless  to  man  for  all  time  to  come  as  though  sunk  beneath 
the  sea.^  Moreover,  the  valleys,  wherever  the  forests  have 
been  cut  away,  are  increasingly  ravaged  by  jfioods;  while 
water  powers,  estimated  at  over  a  million  horse  power  and 
worth  $20,000,000  a  year,  q,re  endangered.'^    In  order  to  check 

iShaler,  in  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Report,  1891,  vol.  iv,  pt.  I,  p.  3.32. 
^United  States  Forest  Service,  Circulars,  143,  144. 


COMMERCE  DEPENDS  ON  LAND  AND  SEA 


23 


such  destruction,  Congress  has  finally  provided  for  the  purchase 
and  permanent  reforestation  of  the  most  rugged  districts  both 
in  the  southern  Appalachians  and  in  New  England.  (Fig.  60.) 
33.  How  Forests  Affect  the  Climate.  Again,  a  forested 
land  is  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than  a  treeless 
surface.  As  a  result  of  this  fact  great  forests,  sheltering  the 
soil  from  the  biUTiing  heat  of  summer  and  the  biting  winds 
of  winter,  have  something  of  the  same  effect  as  the  ocean 
in  moderating  extremes  of  climate.^  Moreover,  a  forested 
surface,  cooled  by  constant  evaporation,  is  a  better  condenser 


Fig.  8. 


Courteay  of  Department  of  Apricultur* 

Hillside  ruined  by  erosion,  where  the  forest  had  been  cut  away. 


of  moisture,  and  therefore  less  liable  to  prolonged  drought, 
than  a  surface  of  bare  rocks  or  of  sun-baked  soil. 

34.  Economic  Importance  of  Forestry.  Finally,  forests  are 
as  necessary  to  civilization  as  grain  fields;  and,  considering 
the  quality  of  land  suitable  for  forests,  they  can  be  made  as 
profitable.  Cheap  lumber  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  the  rapid 
development  of  the  United  States,  especially  the  western 
prairies;  and  a  timber  famine,  such  as  now  impends,  must 
needs  lay  a  crushing  tax  on  American  industry  and  commerce. 

It  is  therefore  imperative  that  a  scientific  system  of  forestry 
be    followed   in    lumbering,    whereby    the    yov:ng    trees   may 

^Forest  Service,  Bulletin  7,  Forest  Influences, 


24 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


bo 


be  saved  to  perpetuate  the  forest,  wherever  the  soil  is  too 
stony  or  sandy  or  the  slope  is  too  steep  for  farming.  In  fact, 
millions  of  acres  of  the  uplands  in  the  United  States,  now 

denuded  of  timber, 
would  best  serve 
the  uses  of  man  if 
permanently  refor- 
ested. Already  the 
proportion  of  for- 
ested area  in  the 
United  States  has 
fallen  almost  as  low 
as    in  Germany. 

(Fig.  9-) 
How  Coast  Lines  Affect  Commerce.     It  is  said  that 


f inland 

Japan 

Siveden 

Russia 

Canada 

Austria 

United  States 
Germany 


Fig, 


Bas«d  on  data  furnished  b;  Forest  Serrioe 

9.     Per  cent  of  area  forested  in  chief 
timber-producing  countries. 


35. 


there  is  no  place  in  Greece  more  than  fifty  miles,  and  no  place 
in  England  more  than  seventy  miles,  from  the  sea.  This  fact 
goes  far  to  explain  why  Greece  was  the  first  part  of  Europe  to 
become  civilized,  and  why  England  now  leads  the  world  in  com- 
merce. Europe  as  a  whole  is  likewise  greatly  indented  by  arms 
of  the  sea,  giving  it  a  much  longer  coast  line  in  proportion  to  its 
size,  and  helping  to  give  it  a  much  larger  commerce,  than  any 
other  continent.  At  the  other  extreme  stands  Africa,  still  the 
"Dark  Continent"  in  large  part  because  the  coast  line  is  sin- 
gularly unbroken,  which  has  hindered  the  access  of  civilizing 
influences  from  over  sea. 

The  accessibility  of  the  land  from  the  sea  affects  commerce 
perhaps  even  more  tlian  the  extent  of  coast  line.  Harborless 
coasts  as  a  rule  have  little  share  in  commerce.  By  reason  of 
easy  access  to  the  sea,  islands  have  often  played  a  part  in 
history  and  in  commerce  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  size. 
The  Grecian  Islands,  Great  Britain,  and  Japan  are  examples. 

36.  The  Formation  of  Harbors.  The  continents,  which 
seem  so  firm,  are  in  fact  in  a  state  of  very  unstable  ec[uilibrium, 
now  rising  slowly  through  centuries  and  again  sinking. 
A  coast  which   has  sunk     considerably   in  recent  geological 


COMMERCE   DEPENDS   ON   LAND   AND   SEA 


25 


time  is  favorable  to  commerce,  because  the  lower  valleys  are 
drowned  beneath  the  sea.  This  is  the  origin  of  most  impor- 
tant inlets  such  as  Chesapeake  Bay  and  Puget  Sound.  Con- 
versely, an  uplifted  coast  is 


'  "'■''  i/"   Lagoon 
.  ,•:     .         enclosed 

Cartwright  Pt. 


by  reef  ■!  \ 

vKitty  Pt. 


English  Harbor,! 
Fanning  Island 


1  inch  =1,270  feet 


Fig.  io.     Part  of  English  Harbor, 
Fanning  Island. 


unfavorable  to  commerce, 

because  it  lacks  such  inlets, 

and  is  often  bordered   by 

dangerous  shoals. 

Some  rocky  coasts,  like 

Maine     and     Alaska,    are 

pierced  by   fiord    harbors, 

that     is,     valleys     eroded 

deep  below  the  water  line 

by   former    glaciers.      But 

such     harbors     are     often 

backed  by  rugged  and  un- 
productive country,  which 

cannot     support    a     large 

commerce.    This  condition 

is  illustrated   by  Norway. 

On  many  coasts  barrier  harbors  occur,  sheltered  by  small 

islands,  as  at  Boston  (Fig.  74) ;  or  sand  bars,  as  at  Galveston; 

or  coral  reefs,  as  in  the  Bermudas.     An  atoll  harbor  consists  of 

such  a  reef  partly  inclosing  a   lagoon,  as    in    Fanning    Island 

(Fig.  10),  now  a  station  on 
the  cable  from  Canada  to 
Australia. 

On  volcanic  coasts  are 
sometimes  found  crater 
harbors,  formed  by  the  sea 
breaking  into  an  extinct 
volcano.  Perhaps  the  finest 
example  in  the  world  is 
Pago  Pago  Harbor  (Fig.  1 1) 
in  American  Samoa. 

Where   natural    harbors 


PAGO  PAGO 
HARBOR 

„  Scale 


DouWaPt. 


Data  from  map  issued  bj  Hydri>grapliic  Oflic' 

Fig,  II.     Pago  Pago  Harbor, 
Tutuila,  Samoa. 


a6  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

are  lacking  or  inadequate  and  the  water  is  not  too  deep,  arti- 
ficial harbors  maybe  formed,  at  great  cost,  by  erecting  break- 
waters, as  has  been  done  at  San  Pedro,  Cal.  (Fig.  126.)  Even 
the  best  natural  harbors  are  in  part  artificial  since  they  require ' 
more  or  less  improvement  to  fit  them  for  the  immense  vessels 
now  in  use. 

37.  How  Location  Affects  Commerce.  Napoleon  once 
declared  war  to  be  "a  matter  of  positions."  In  commerce,  as 
in  war,  success  depends  largely  on  the  positions  held  by  the 
contending  parties.     It  was  the  favorable  location  of  Venice 


r 

H 

H^^^^^g^«^'-^7*^^^^ah|^^^BB 

Wt 

^S 

m 

Z  J|Lg 

B 

^ 

■  ^fri^^^P*®^  ^"^^ 

^S 

^s 

jh 

^^^Vlr>'^ 

Fig.  12.     Where  land  and  water  transportation  meet.      Bird's-eye 
view  0}  the  Reading  Terminals  at  Philadelphia. 

and  the  Netherlands,  backed  by  the  splendid  energy  and 
daring  of  their  people,  which  made  them  for  many  genera- 
tions the  leading  commercial  nations  of  the  world. 

The  seats  of  commerce  are  located  at  places  clearly  desig- 
nated by  nature — "at  the  crossroads  of  the  great  world 
thoroughfares." 

38.  The  Termini  of  Ocean  Routes.  Such  crossroads  are 
found  in  a  preeminent  sense,  wherever  ocean  and  land  transpor- 
tation meet;  that  is,  where  goods  brought  by  sea  are  landed 
and  those  brought  by  land  are  transferred  to  ships.     The  great 


COMMERCE   DEPENDS   ON   LAND   AND    SEA  27 

markets  of  the  world  are  therefore  seaports,  located  either  at 
the  head  of  ocean  navigation  on  rivers,  as  London,  Hamburg, 
Antwerp,  Montreal,  Philadelphia  (Fig.  12),  Baltimore,  New 
Orleans,  or  else  at  the  head  of  bays  having  good  connections 
inland,  as  Boston,  New  York,  and  San  Francisco. 

Important  seaports,  serving  as  entrepots,  or  distributing 
points,  are  likewise  found  wherever  many  lines  of  ocean 
transportation  meet;  for  many  goods  are  there  landed  and 
transhipped.  Hong-kong  and  Singapore  are  good  examples. 
Such  entrepots  also  arise  where  a  narrow  isthmus  separates 
important  bodies  of  water  (Corinth,  Panama). 

39.  The  Termini  of  Inland  Water  Routes.  Commercial 
cities  likewise  arise  away  from  the  seacoast  wherever  land 
and  water  transportation  meet.  This  occurs  "near  the  heads 
of  great  lakes,  as  at  Duluth- Superior,  and  Chicago.  It  occurs 
also  at  the  head  of  river  navigation  (Trenton,  St.  Paul); 
where  several  rivers  and  river  valleys  converge  (St.  Louis, 
Pittsburgh);  near  falls  or  rapids  which  impede  navigation 
(Louisville);  at  the  bridge  nearest  the  mouth  of  a  great 
river  (Memphis);  and  where  a  great  bend  occurs  in  an 
important  river  or  river  valley  (Cincinnati,  Kansas  City). 

What  a  vital  part  water  transportation  plays  in  commerce 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  of  the  twenty  largest  cities 
in  the  United  States,  nine  are  on  the  coast,  five  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  five  on  the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  and  the  Ohio,  and 
one  on  the  Potomac. 

40.  The  Crossing  of  Land  Routes.  Finally,  important 
cities  are  also  created  by  the  meeting  of  several  lines  of  land 
transportation,  that  is,  of  caravan  routes  or  railways.  Such 
centers  of  population  are  fixed,  not  less  than  harbor  and  river 
cities,  by  the  surface  of  the  country.  They  are  either  in  the 
center  of  extensive  plains,  where  the  lines  of  trade  and  travel 
from  all  directions  cross  (Indianapolis),  or  they  stand  at  the 
focus  of  radiating  mountain  passes.  This  sort  of  location, 
which  built  Vienna,  Turin,  and  Milan,  is  equally  responsible  for 
Atlanta  and  Denver. 


a  8  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

41.  Typical  Military,   Naval,   and  Commercial  Sites.     In 

contrast,  therefore,  to  military  cities,  which  were  perched  upon 
hills  (Athens,  Rome),  the  chief  seats  of  commerce  are  found  in 
the  lowlands.  Moreover  in  contrast  to  naval  ports,  which  are 
located  by  preference  at  the  extremities  of  peninsulas  so  as 
to  have  the  longest  radius  of  action  by  sea,  commercial  ports 
lie  at  the  inner  ends  of  bays  so  as  to  shorten  the  more  expensive 
transportation  by  land.  Brest  in  France,  Pola  in  Italy,  and 
the  Dry  Tortugas  near  Key  West  in  Florida,  are  thus  typical 
locations  for  naval  ports;  precisely  as  Le  Havre,  Trieste,  and 
Mobile  are  for  commercial  ports. 

42.  The  Paths  of  Ocean  Commerce.  The  ocean  can, 
indeed,  be  navigated  in  any  direction,  while  a  train  must 
follow  the  rails.  This  is  one  great  advantage  of  ocean 
transportation.  Nevertheless  there  are  certain  routes,  con- 
necting the  principal  commercial  countries,  which  are  always 
thronged  with  vessels,  while  other  parts  of  the  ocean  seldom 
see  a  sail.     (Fig.  14.) 

Ocean  trade  routes  rarely  follow  a  straight  line.  Even 
steamships  shape  their  course  more  or  less  by  the  winds  and 
currents  (Fig.  21b)  since  they  may  gain  or  lose  fifty  miles  a 
day  in  this  way.  Again,  the  fogs  and  icebergs  of  the  North 
Atlantic  force  vessels  to  follow  a  southerly  course  part  of  the 
year.  Finally,  projecting  capes  such  as  Sao  Roque,  Good 
Hope,  and  Horn  modify  all  routes  in  their  vicinity,  while 
isthmuses  such  as  Suez  and  Panama,  unless  cut  through  by 
man,  would  cause  a  detoiu"  of  thousands  of  miles.  Ocean 
trade  routes  are  also  controlled  in  a  positive  way  by  the  loca- 
tion of  much-frequented  channels  or  ship  canals  connecting 
different  seas;  above  all  by  the  English  and  Florida  channels, 
the  Strait  of  Malacca,  the  Suez  Canal,  the  Dardanelles,  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  the  Panama  Canal. 

Thus  the  barriers  which  limit  commerce  to-day  are  not 
water  barriers,  as  in  the  ages  before  man  had  mastered  navi- 
gation, but  land  barriers. 


Aft <»..!',  iqiS 


Pig.  14.    Cor 


Important  Steainship  Lines(density  of  traffic), CZZI 
Steamship  Lines  determined  by  Panama  Canal 


Copyright,  iqiQ,  ty  R.ind   Mi.Xaily  C"  Co. 


rcial  highways. 


IV— HOW  COMMERCE  DEPENDS  ON  CLIMATE 

43.  Climate.  Even  more  than  soil,  surface,  or  coast  line, 
climate  controls  the  industry  and  commerce  of  nations.  In 
fact,  it  limits  absolutely  all  natural  products  except  minerals. 
And  nothing  shakes  the  commercial  world  to  its  foun- 
dations like  a  series  of  crop  failures,  due  to  unfavorable 
climatic  conditions,  such  as  prevailed  in  the  West  before  the 
panic  of  1893. 

Climate  is  simply  the  average  of  weather  conditions;  and 
its  elements  are  heat,  light,  moisture,  and  wind.  These  factors 
taken  together  make  up  all  the  climatic  differences  between 
Alaska  and  the  Sahara. 

44.  Why  It  Rains.  Nothing  in  nature  is  more  impressive 
than  the  dependence  of  human  occupations  on  moisture. 
The  most  arid  desert,  as  a  rule,  lacks  nothing  but  rainfall  to 
make  it  blossom  as  the  rose ;  and  the  most  fertile  farm  land 
would  speedily  lapse  into  desert  were  the  rain  to  cease.  The 
causes  which  produce  or  hinder  rainfall  are  therefore  potent 
influences  in  the  commerce  of  the  world.     (Fig.  15.) 

It  is  a  fact  (or  law)  of  nature  that  warm  air  can  hold  more 
moisture  than  cold  air.^  In  general,  therefore,  anything  which 
chills  the  air  considerably  will  tend  to  cause  rain  or  snow. 
Conversely,  air  absorbs  more  moisture  as  it  grows  warmer. 
The  conditions  are  thus  favorable  for  rainfall:  (i)  when 
the  air  rises,  as  in  passing  over  mountains  or  in  approach- 
ing the  centers  of  low  atmospheric  pressure^  which  travel 
from  west  to  east  in  the  Temperate  zones;  (2)  when  it  blows 
from  the  sea  toward  a  cooler  land,  as  on  the  western  coast 
of  Europe  in  winter;  (3)  when  it  blows  away  from  the 
equator,  as  in  the  region  of  prevailing  southwesterly  winds 
north  of  latitude  4o°N. 

^Salisbury,  Physiography,  Advanced  Course,  p.  569. 

2See  one  of  the  maps  issued  by  the  Weather  Bureau. 

(29) 


3©  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

On  the  other  hand,  drought  is  produced  by  a  pronounced 
current  of  air  moving:  (i)  toward  the  equator,  as  in  the 
trade-wind  belt  (Sahara) ;  (2)  from  higher  to  lower  levels,  like 
the  Chinook  wind  which,  descending  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, evaporates  the  heaviest  snowfall  almost  over  night; 
(3)  from  a  colder  sea  toward  a  warmer  land,  as  in  parts  of 
southwest  Africa  washed  by  a  cold  ocean  current. 

The  west  coasts  in  Temperate  zones,  the  east  coasts  in  the 
Tropics,  receive  the  prevailing  winds  fresh  from  the  sea,  the 
principal  source  of  moisture.  They  are  consequently  as  a 
rule  tjie  best-watered  parts  of  the  continents. 

45.  Causes  Affecting  Heat  and  Light.  Heat  is  necessary 
for  life;  without  it  there  could  be  no  commerce.  If  need  be, 
parts  of  a  country  can  be  irrigated;  but  no  country  can  be 
artificially  heated. 

The  temperature  of  a  region  depends  on  several  factors,  the 
most  important  being  its  latitude  or  distance  from  the  equator. 
(Fig.  16.)  Latitude  affects  the  temperature  not  because  the 
sun  is  materially  nearer  at  the  equator,  but  because,  as  you 
go  away  from  the  equator,  the  rays  of  the  sun  strike  less 
perpendicularly.  The  same  explanation  holds  for  the  greater 
heat  of  summer,  and  likewise  for  the  fact  that  hillsides  facing 
the  sun  are  somewhat  warmer  than  level  lands.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  vineyards  are  found  as  a  rule  on  the  southern 
slope  in  Europe,  but  on  the  northern  slope  in  Australia. 

The  second  factor  is  altitude  or  elevation  above  sea  level. 
Its  effect  may  be  tlius  roughly  expressed : 

320  feet  elevations  I  degree  of  latitudes  i  degree  F.' 

A  climb  up  a  mountain  side  in  the  Tropics  to  snow  line  would 
thus  carry  one  through  the  same  temperature  and  vegetation 
belts  as  a  journey  from  the  equator  to  the  Arctic  region — a  fact 
of  vital  import  for  the  future  of  the  white  race  in  the  Tropics. 

The  third   factor  affecting  temperature   is  the  sea,  which 

changes   its  temperature  much  more  slowly  than    the    land 

'Hann,  Climatology  The  data  are  100  meters  =  0.57°  C,  or  328.08 
feet=  i.0  2  6°F.  Also  50°  latitude  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  =  50. 94° F.; 
in  Southern  =  49.86°  F. 


COMMERCE    DEPENDS   ON    CLIMATE  31 

and  consequently  moderates  extremes  both  of  heat  and  cold. 
Moreover,  the  ocean  currents  and  the  prevailing  winds  carry 
the  heat  of  the  regions  whence  they  come  far  away  into  other 
lands.  Thus  Great  Britain,  surrounded  by  the  sea,  has  an 
oceanic  climate,  neither  very  hot  nor  very  cold;  and  the  west 
winds,  warmed  by  passing  over  a  current  (or  rather  a  slow 
drift)  of  water  from  the  Tropics,  spread  the  influence  of  the 
Atlantic  over  all  western  Europe. ^  On  the  other  hand,  eastern 
Russia  has  a  continental  climate,  marked  by  great  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold. 

Besides  heat,  light  is  necessary  for  the  ripening  of  crops. 
Thus  grain  will  not  ripen  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  which  are 
not  excessively  cold,  because  the  sky  there  is  nearly  always 
cloudy. 

Finally,  the  nearer  to  the  poles,  the  longer  are  the  days  in 
summer,  and  the  many  hours  of  continuous  sunshine  (twenty 
or  more  in  the  higher  latitudes)  force  vegetation  to  an  extra- 
ordinarily rapid  growth.  (Figs.  17  and  171.)  To  this  fact 
is  due  the  extension  of  the  grain  belt  far  toward  the  poles. 

46.  The  Relation  of  the  Wind  to  Commerce.  From  the 
foregoing  discussion  it  appears  that  the  active  agent  in  the 
distribution  of  moisture  and  heat  is  everywhere  the  wind. 
The  wind  system  of  the  world  is  thus  a  factor  of  commanding 
importance  in  all  industries  that  depend,  directly  or  indirectly, 
on  climate. 

Persistent  winds  blowing  over  the  ocean  moreover  cause 
a  drift  of  surface  water  in  the  same  direction,  which  in  some 
places  develops  into  strong  currents.  Both  winds  and  cur- 
rents, in  addition  to  their  climatic  effects,  materially  influence 
ocean  navigation,  even  in  these  days  of  steam. 

Sailing  vessels,  of  course,  depend  absolutely  on  the  winds 
and  will  always  follow  a  longer  course  with  favoring  winds 
rather  than  a  shorter  course  with  adverse  winds.  Thus  ships 
sailing  from  England  to  Australia  commonly  go  out  by  way 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but  return  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  in 
'Shaler,  Nature  and  Man,  p.  143;  Salisbury,  Physiography,  p.  700. 


Anti-Tmde  Winds 

^j7^<r'^Tp>  *>f 

"^^t^"^ 

■^"^T^^*i^-" 

Horse  Latitudes 

Equator 

%rk'L\ititud€5 

1       -^- 

^\ 

^  r  y       \  >►-- 

<-■' 

K'               Tmdf  Wjii 

??_ __i__.  _. rra<teW,rw                       .\ 

B^ 

Earth's  Surface 

.                         ...A 

3  a  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

order  to  take  advantage  of  the  strong  west  wind  below  lati- 
tude 40°  S.  The  trade  winds  are  perhaps  even  more  available 
for  navigation  than  the  west  winds,  because  less  variable. 

47.  The  Cause  of  the  Wind.  The  cause  of  the  wind  is  the 
unequal  weight  of  the  air  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

(Fig.  18.)  The  force 
of  gravity  does  the 
rest,  promptly  set- 
ting the  heavier  air 
in  motion  toward 
the  areas  of  lighter 
air.     These  are 

Fig.  18.     The  cause  of  the  trade  winds.  known     aS    "areas 

of  low  pressure." 
The  principal  cause  of  this  inequality  in  the  weight  of  the 
air  is  the  greater  heat  of  the  sun  near  the  equator,  which 
expands  the  air  in  the  equatorial  belt  and  thus  makes  it 
lighter.  Another  cause  is  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  which 
tends  to  throw  the  air  toward  the  equator,  and  thus  by  com- 
pression to  make  it  heavier  in  that  region.  The  joint  effect 
of  these  two  opposing  forces  is  a  belt  of  low  pressure  near  the 
equator,  and  a  belt  or  "ridge"  of  high  atmospheric  pressure 
at  about  30° — 3 5°  each  side  of  the  equator.  From  this  belt  of 
permanent  high  pressure  in  each  hemisphere,  known  as  the 
Horse  Latitudes,  the  air  moves  toward  the  equator  and  also 
in  opposite  direction  toward  the  poles,  just  as  a  spring  on  a 
water  parting  sends  its  waters  down  both  slopes.  The  winds 
blowing  toward  the  equator  are  the  two  trade  winds,  the  winds 
blowing  toward  the  poles  are  the  prevailing  westerlies  of  the 
Temperate  zones — all  being  turned  from  a  direct  north  and 
south  course  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 1     (Fig.  19.) 

48.  Prevailing  Winds  and  Climatic  Belts.  Although  the 
unequal  heating  of  land  and  sea  and  the  effect  of  ocean  cur- 
rents and  of  mountains,  cause  great  climatic  differences, 
even  in  the  same  latitude,  it  is  still  possible  to  define  belts  of 

'Salisbury,  Physiography,  chs.  16,  17. 


COMMERCE   DEPENDS   ON    CLIMATE 


33 


similar  winds  and  climate  roughly  parallel  to  the  equator. 
The  limits  of  all  the  wind  and  climatic  belts  shift  north 
and  south  about  5°  to  10°  of  latitude  with  the  sun.    (Fig.  20.) 

Going  from  the  equator  toward  the  pole,  we  find  in  each 
hemisphere  six  climatic  belts  or  zones:  the  Equatorial, 
Subequatorial,  Tropical,  Subtropical,  Temperate,  and  Frigid. 

49.  The  Equatorial  Zone.  Near  the  equator,  within  the 
permanent  belt  of  low  atmospheric  pressure,  the  warm  air  is 
always  rising,  much  as  it  does  over  a  heated  stove,  but  more 
slowly.     (Fig.  18.)  ^„„,p„,. 

As  a  result  there 
is  very  little  sur- 
face wind,  and  the 
rising  air,  becoming 
chilled,  drops  part  of 
its  moisture  in  heavy 
rains.  As  the  sun  is 
vertical  twice  a  year, 
once  in  the  spring 
and  again  in  the 
autumn,  and  each 
time  strengthens 
this  up-draft  of 
heated  air,  there  are 
two  rainy  seasons — 
or  rather,  two  sea- 
sons more  rainy  than 
the  rest — and  two 
relatively  dry  seasons. 
Panama 


Fig.  19. 


The  prevailing  surface  winds 
of  the  world. 


This  is  the  case,  for  example,  at 
This  belt  of  calms  and  rains,  extending  5°  to  10° 
each  side  of  the  equator,  is  known  to  sailors  as  the  doldrums. 
Owing  to  the  heavy  rainfall,  most  of  the  belt  is  densely 
forested,  and  produces  for  export  chiefly  jungle  products,  such 
as  rubber,  mahogany,  dye  woods,  besides  ivory  from  certain 
jungle  animals.  The  one  important  cultivated  crop  is  cocoa. 
The  soil  is  usually  fertile,  but  the  combination  of  constant  heat 


34 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


and  humidity  is  debilitating;  food  sufficient  to  sustain  life  may 
be  had  for  the  picking,  and  clothes  are  not  necessary  to  exist- 
ence. There  is  consequently  little  incentive  to  labor,  and  the 
natives  have  as  a  rule  remained  naked  savages.  Such  condi- 
tions are  well  illustrated  in  the  Amazon  and  Congo  valleys. 

The  mountains  and  elevated  plateaus  in  this  belt  have  of 
course  quite  a  different  type  of  climate  and  population,  and 
yield  different  products,  such  as  coffee,  tea,  and  even  wheat. 

50.  The  Subequatorial  Zones.  Bordering  the  Equatorial 
zone  in  each  hemisphere  is  a  transition  belt  extending  from 

10°  to  perhaps  20°  from  the 

^r^atlijig^ Westet^y  Wiji 
fuly 
'^^  /  ^■''Northern  Horse/Latitudes' ^ 


equator,  where  the  two 
rainy  seasons  coming  close 
together  in  summer  merge 
into  one,  while  in  winter 
the  drying  trade  wind 
blows.  This  is  the  Sub- 
equatorial  or  Savanna  zone, 
abounding  in  grass  lands, 
but  treeless  except  where 
there  are  slopes  steep 
enough  to  condense  mois- 
ture from  the  trade  wind. 
It  is  consequently  the  chief 
stock-raising    zone    within 

Fig.  20.     Seasonal  migration  of  winds      ^^^  -'■  topics,    iixamples  are 
and  climatic  belts  cf  world.  the  llanos  of  Venezuela,  the 

campos  of  Brazil,  the  grasslands  of  Rhodesia,  and  of  the 
Sudan  in  Africa.  These  grasslands  bordering  the  equatorial 
forests  do  not  cease  abruptly  but  (in  Africa,  for  example)  pass 
gradually  into  deserts  about  latitude  18°  to  20°. 

51.  The  Tropical  Zones.  The  Tropical  or  trade-wind  belt 
extends  from  the  outer  (or  poleward)  limit  of  the  doldrums  to 
perhaps  30°  from  the  equator. 

The  trade  winds,  formed  by  the  heavier  air  pressing 
toward  the  equator,  blow  from  the  northeast  in  the  Northern, 


M«'J/__ 

\  ~~~~:-^  Soiifherjt^  Hor^e^LdiituHes^ 


COMMERCE   DEPENDS   ON   CLIMATE  3$ 

from  the  southeast  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere ;  and  since 
they  move  toward  a  warmer  region,  they  tend  to  create  deserts 
in  level  regions  such  as  the  Sahara,  Arabia,  and  central  Aus- 
tralia. On  the  other  hand  when  chilled  by  rising  over  elevated 
coasts  or  mountains,  they  yield  rain  in  torrents,  as  on  the  east 
coast  of  Central  America. 

The  level  and  therefore  arid  portions  of  the  trade-wind  belts 
play  little  part  in  commerce,  being  sparsely  occupied  by  nomad 
shepherd  tribes,  though  the  desert  oases  do  contribute  dates 
for  export.  The  humid  portions,  on  the  other  hand,  produce 
the  bulk  of  the  commercial  staples  peculiar  to  the  Tropics, 
especially  cane  sugar  and  coffee. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world,  the  unequal  heating  of  sea 
and  land  causes  the  air  to  move  toward  the  land  in  summer 
and  toward  the  sea  in  winter.  These  monsoon  winds  find 
their  greatest  development  in  southern  and  eastern  Asia, 
where,  owing  to  the  intense  heat  in  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent during  the  summer,  the  northeast  trade  wind  is  diverted 
from  its  usual  course,  or  even  entirely  overpowered,  and  the 
heavier  air  over  the  oceans  rushes  from  all  directions  toward 
the  interior  of  Asia.  To  this  summer  monsoon  wind  are  due 
the  abundant  rainfall,  the  productivity,  and  the  dense  popu- 
lation of  India,  the  Philippines,  and  southern  China,  which 
lie  in  the  latitude  of  the  Sahara.     (Figs.  15  and  17.) 

This  monsoon  region  produces  most  of  the  rice,  tea,  silk, 
jute,  Manila  hemp,  and  not  a  little  of  the  cotton  of  the  world. 

52.  The  Subtropical  Zones.  Along  the  poleward  edge  of 
either  trade-wind  belt  in  the  Horse  Latitudes  the  currents 
of  air  which  ascend  at  the  equator  again  reach  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  producing  another  belt  of  calms,  or  light  and  vari- 
able winds.  (Fig.  18.)  This  is  the  Subtropical  zone.  Its 
location  is  in  general  about  latitude  30°  to  35°,  though  in 
Europe  it  extends  north  in  summer  to  latitude  40°,  or  even 
45°  in  southern  France. 

These  zones  receive  some  rain  in  winter  from  the  westerly 
wind,  which  then  reaches  farthest  toward  the  equator,   but 


36 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


in  summer  come  under  the  influence  of  the  drying  trade  wind, 
which  then  begins  farthest  from  the  equator.      Moreover  the 

descending  air  cur- 
rents,  growing 
warmer  as  they  de- 
scend, tend  to  pro- 
duce drought.  The 
Subtropical  zones 
are  therefore  in  the 
main  semi-arid, 
especially  in  sum- 
mer when  irrigation 
is  often  necessary, 
and  they  contain 
patches  of  true 
desert.  Southern 
California,  Arizona, 
and  the  Mediterra- 
nean region  are 
familiar  examples. 
(Fig.  21.)  This  type 
of  climate  is  most 
clearly   marked  on 


Fig.  21. 


Grove  of  date  palms,  Biskra, 
Algeria. 


the  western  side  of  the  continents,  while  toward  the  east  it 
is  interrupted  by  summer  rains  of  monsoon  or  cyclonic 
origin,  notably  in  Asia  and  North  America. 

Commercially,  the  Subtropical  zone  is  important  chiefly 
through  its  production  of  southern  fruits  and  nuts — especially 
grapes,  figs,  olives,  almonds,  oranges,  and  lemons — for  most 
of  which  it  is  no  doubt  the  original  home.  In  the  regions  of 
summer  rains,  however,  especially  in  the  United  States,  the 
staple  crops  are  cotton  and  tobacco. 

53.  The  Temperate  Zones.  The  air  current  moving  from  the 
Horse  Latitudes  toward  the  pole  blows^rom  the  southwest  in 
the  Northern,  from  the  northwest  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere.    This  is  the  "Brave  West  Wind"  of  sailors,  which  is 


COMMERCE  DEPENDS  ON  CLIMATE  37 

strongest  in  the  "Roaring  Forties"  of  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere, where  there  is  little  land  to  obstruct  its  course.  It  is 
usually  rain-bearing,  except  when  descending  from  higher  to 
lower  levels  on  mountain  sides,  or  when  traversing  plains  as 
warm  as  the  air.  The  rainfall  in  these  zones  is  naturally- 
heaviest  on  the  western  coasts  and  on  the  western  slopes  of 
mountains  exposed  to  the  west  winds.     (Fig.  7.) 

The  distribution  of  moisture  is  also  profoundly  affected 
by  the  great  whirling  storms,  a  thousand  miles  or  more  in 
diameter  (cyclones,  but  not  tornadoes)  which,  in  the  Temperate 
zones,  surround  temporary  areas  of  low  pressure  as  they 
move  from  west  to  east  around  the  world.  The  warm  moist  air 
from  the  oceans,  blowing  toward  these  areas  of  low  pressure, 
penetrates  thousands  of  miles  into  the  interior  of  the  continents. 
(Fig.  2ia.)  Largely  through  the  influence  of  these  cyclonic 
storms  the  Temperate  zones  are  well  watered,  except  where  lofty 
mountains  intervene.  (Fig.  15.)  Examples  are  the  greater 
part  of  the  United  States,  Canada,  northern  Europe,  and  Asia. 

Measured  by  temperature,  the  limits  of  the  Temperate  zones 
are  very  irregular,  as  they  extend  from  about  latitude  35'*  to 
latitude  50°  on  the  east  coasts  and  to  60°  (in  places  even  70°) 
on  the  west  coasts  of  the  continents,  where  the  west  winds 
from  the  oceans  moderate  the  winters.  Perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory  poleward  limit  is  the  line  of  50°  F.  for  the 
warmest  month,  that  being  the  heat  necessary  to  maintain 
forests  and  ripen  hardy  crops.     (Fig.  16.) 

Commercially,  the  Temperate  zones  are  most  important 
for  the  production  of  breadstuffs  and  live  stock.  They  are 
also  the  seat  of  the  leading  mining,  mantifacturing,  and  com- 
mercial  nations. 

54.  The  Frigid  Zones.  In  the  Frigid  zones  where  the  soil 
is  always  frozen,  except  a  few  inches  on  top,  and  where  darkness 
prevails  throughout  a  considerable  part  of  the  year,  the  sea 
rather  than  the  soil  is  the  source  of  food  and  the  most  severe 
effort  produces  barely  enough  to  sustain  life,  leaving  no 
surplus  for  the  higher  uses  of  man.     These  regions  therefore 


38  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

contribute  almost  nothing  to  commerce,  and  their  inhabit- 
ants have  never  of  their  own  efforts  risen  above  savagery. 

55.  The  Relation  of  Climate  to  Man.  The  climate  largely 
determines  men's  occupations,  food,  and  dress.  It  also  in  a 
measure  stimulates  or  checks  their  emotions,  directs  their 
thoughts,  and  subtly  moulds  their  whole  constitution  and 
temperament.  Tropical  peoples  are  more  impetuous,  but  less 
tenacious  of  purpose  and  far  less  energetic  in  labor,  than  those 
of  colder  zones.  For  this  reason  no  ruling  race  has  ever  had  its 
seat  within  the  Tropics,  at  least  in  the  moist  regions;  nor  has 
any  civilized  nation  ever  arisen  there,  except  such  as  dwelt  at 
considerable  elevations  above  sea  level.  There  is,  however, 
a  sharp  distinction  between  the  natives  of  humid  regions  in 
the  Tropics  and  the  desert  dwellers,  who  have  ever  been  more 
energetic  and  independent,  as  witness  the  Arabs. 

In  the  Temperate  zones,  on  the  other  hand,  the  changes  of 
the  seasons  are  favorable  to  activity  and  energy ;  and  the  gifts 
of  nature,  being  neitlier  altogether  lacking  nor  yet  super- 
abundant, at  once  encourage  and  compel  man  to  supplement 
nature  through  his  own  efforts.  A  temperate  climate  is  thus 
the  most  favorable  for  the  development  of  man.  Civilization, 
indeed,  may  be  defined  as  a  by-product  (or  incidental  result) 
of  the  effort  necessary  to  sustain  life. 

Moreover,  within  the  North  Temperate  zone,  the  seat  of 
power  has  shifted  far  toward  the  north  since  the  dawn  of  his- 
tory. From  Egypt  and  Babylon,  located  just  outside  the 
Tropics,  the  scepter  of  dominion  passed  successively  to  Persia, 
Greece,  and  Rome;  when  Rome  fell,  her  heritage  went  to  the 
peoples  beyond  the  Alps.  To-day  there  is  no  great  nation 
whose  capital  is  much  nearer  the  equator  than  40°;  London  is 
north  of  50°;  and  Washington  is  about  39°   north. 

The  temperate  zones  originate  three-fourths  of  the  world's 
commerce;  and  the  leadership  of  the  world,  in  industry, 
commerce,  and  politics,  rests  with  peoples  reared  under  an 
inclement  sky  and  schooled  to  severe  labor  for  their  daily  bread. 


V—HOW  COMMERCE  DEPENDS  ON  MAN 

"Oh,  East  is  East,  and  West  is  West,  and  never  the  twain  shall  meet." 

— Kipling. 

56.  The  Relation  of  Man  to  Commerce.  The  basis  of 
commerce  is  unlikeness  of  products  in  different  regions,  which 
must  consequently  exchange  their  products  in  order  to  satisfy 
their  wants.  This  condition  constitutes  geographic  division 
of  labor,  which  it  is  the  business  of  commercial  geography  to 
study  and  explain. 

Unlikeness  of  products  may  be  due  to  difference  in  natural 
resources  or  to  difference  in  the  wants  and  the  productive 
efficiency  of  different  peoples.  The  wants  of  men  are  the 
motive  power  behind  all  industry  and  commerce.  For  this 
reason,  to  civilize  a  savage,  the  first  and  most  indispensable 
step  is  to  give  him  wants.  The  native  of  the  Tropics,  and  the 
savage  everywhere,  having  few  wants,  cannot  be  depended 
on  for  regular  labor.  But  let  the  savage  once  learn  to  crave 
new  kinds  of  food  or  clothes  or  anything  else  which  he  can 
only  secure  by  labor  and  he  b.ecomes  forthwith  a  laborer.  The 
efficiency  of  men  as  producers  consequently  varies  greatly ;  and 
this  variation  is  reflected  in  the  existing  economic  conditions 
throughout  the  world.  England  and  the  vSudan,  for  example,' 
differ  not  less  in  the  character  of  their  inhabitants  than  they 
do  in  natural  resources. 

Such  difference  in  wants  and  productive  efficiency  may 
result  from  either  the  inherited  and  more  or  less  involuntary 
characteristics  of  various  peoples,  associated  with  difference 
in  race,  religion,  custom,  language,  and  nationality;  or  it  may 
result  from  their  voluntary  and  purposeful  activities,  such  as 
the  services  of  government,  the  system  of  taxation,  commer- 
cial policies,  and  the  regulation  of  weights  and  measures, 
money,   banks,   and  education. 

(39) 


40  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

57.  The  Influence  of  Race.  Since  the  dawn  of  history- 
some  6,000  years  ago,  the  white,  yellow,  and  black  races  have 
been  fixed  types;  and  the  white  race  has  always  been  most 
largely  represented  in  commerce.  It  would  therefore  be  a 
waste  of  time  to  discuss  the  business  condition  or  prospects 
of  such  countries  as  Haiti  or  China  without  regard  to  the 
well  ascertained  traits  of  their  inhabitants.     (Fig.  200.) 

The  chief  branches  of  the  white  race  have  in  like  manner 
become  more  or  less  distinct.  A  Hebrew  is  usually  unmis- 
takable, while  certain  common  qualities  distinguish  the  Latin, 
Teutonic,  and  Slavic  nations  from  one  another.  These  common 
qualities,  however  they  originated,  control  commerce  quite  as 
directly  as  does  physical  environment.  Racial  difference 
assuredly  has  much  to  do  with  the  startling  contrast,  in  com- 
merce as  in  other  respects,  between  the  Portuguese  in  Brazil 
and  the  English-speaking  population  of  North  America. 

58.  The  Influence  of  Religion.  ^  The  direct  influence  of 
religion  upon  industry  and  commerce  is  far  from  insignificant. 
For  example,  the  Jew  may  not  eat  pork,  nor  the  Brahman 
beef;  the  Catholic  is  limited  to  fish  on  certain  fast  days;  and 
the  Mohammedan  is  forbidden  to  use  alcoholic  liquors.  These 
and  other  religious  rules,  such  as  the  numerous  holidays 
required  by  some  religions,  affect  in  important  respects  the 
industry  and  commerce  of  extensive  regions. 

The  indirect  influence  of  religion,  while  subtle  and  difficult 
to  state,  is  still  more  far  reaching.  Thus  the  stagnation  of 
China  for  the  last  thousand  years  was  certainly  due  in  part  to 
Confucianism,  the  state  religion,  which  exalted  the  wise  men 
of  old  so  greatly  that  every  innovation  appeared  a  mortal  sin. 
"Whatever  has  not  been,  must  not  be,"  is  the  Confucian  creed. 
Again,  the  decay  of  the  Mohammedan  peoples  cannot  be 
explained  without  reference  to  their  fatalism.  "Nothing  hap- 
pens but  by  the  will  of  Allah;  why  then  disturb  one's  self?" 
So  the  Turk  reasons ;  and  logically  enough  he  will  hardly  bestir 
himself  to  throw  on  water  if  his  house  catches  fire.  Still 
less,  of  course,  will  he  bestir  himself  to  labor.     If  riches  come 


COMMERCE   DEPENDS   ON    MAN  41 

to  him,  it  is  well;  if  not,  it  is  also  well.  However  restful  such 
a  creed  may  appear  in  this  strenuous  age  and  country,  it  is 
clearly  not  favorable  to  industry  or  commerce. 

59.  The  Influence  of  Custom  and  Morality.  Peoples  long 
isolated  from  others  are  not  infrequently  hostile  to  foreigners 
and  to  everything  of  foreign  origin.  In  the  interior  of  China, 
for  example,  travelers  were  sometimes  driven  to  adopt  the 
native  garb,  even  to  the  "pig  tails"  (long  braids  of  hair)  in 
order  to  escape  insult  and  possible  injury.  The  same  hostility 
limits  the  sales  of  foreign  goods,  and  leads  at  times  to  organized 
boycotts  against  them.  In  like  manner,  the  peons  (laborers) 
in  Mexico  and  Central  America  refuse  to  use,  and  they  some- 
times destroy,  modern  tools  and  farm  machinery,  preferring 
their  wooden  hoes  and  plows.  Such  a  disposition  opposes  great 
obstacles  to  commercial  development. 

Again,  since  trade  was  at  first  a  substitute  for  war  (§1), 
a  man  went  down  into  the  market  place  bent  on  getting  the 
better  of  the  foreigner,  whom  he  continued  to  regard  as  his 
enemy ^  Substantially  this  conception  of  trade  has  survived 
to  the  present  day  in  most  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  where 
time  is  not  money,  where  the  aim  is  to  make  a  large  profit 
on  a  few  sales,  and  cheating  seems  to  be  entirely  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  game.  The  same  method  is  also  pursued 
in  many  cases  by  the  huckster  and  peddler  (to  say  nothing 
of  the  horse  trader)  the  w^orld  over. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  method  of  small  profits  but  large 
sales  is  increasingly  characteristic  of  western  civilization;  and 
when  carried  to  its  logical  conclusion,  it  means  full  weight  and 
measure,  one  price  for  all,  and  the  sale  of  goods  strictly  on  their 
merits.  Moreover,  since  business  has  come  to  be  transacted  so 
largely  on  credit,  it  rests  almost  entirely  on  mutual  confidence 
between  man  and  man.  Without  confidence,  indeed,  modern 
business  would  be  irr-possible.  For  this  reason,  business 
morality  must  be  reckoned  at  least  as  essential  to  success  in 
commerce  as  intelligence,  or  skill  of  hand,  or  ample  resources. 

»The  Latin  word  hostis  means  both  "foreigner"  and  "enemy." 


4«  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

6a.  The  Influence  of  Language.  Difiference  of  language 
is  a  hindrance  to  commercial  as  to  social  intercourse,  imposing 
as  it  does  the  necessity  of  maintaining  a  class  of  interpreters 
able  to  use  several  languages.  (Fig.  229,)  In  this  respect, 
western  Europe  is  less  favorably  circumstanced  for  commerce 
to-day  than  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  Latin  was  the  common 
language  of  business,  as  it  was  of  literature  and  government. 

In  the  hope  of  overcoming  this  barrier  of  language,  artificial 
languages  such  as  Esperanto  have  been  invented;  but  a  true 
world  language  will  doubtless  come,  if  it  comes  at  all,  by  the 
spread  and  modification  of  some  existing  language.  Many 
believe  that  English  would  stand  the  best  chance  of  universal 
acceptance  if  only  its  spelling  could  be  completely  reformed. 

The  leading  languages  of  commerce,  measured  by  extent  of 
territory,  include:  English  in  the  widely  scattered  British 
Empire  and  the  United  States;  Spanish,  throughout  most  of 
America  south  of  the  Rio  Grande;  Russian,  prevalent  over 
nearly  half  of  Europe  and  of  Asia;  Chinese,  spoken  by  a 
fourth  of  the  human  race  in  eastern  Asia;  and  Arabic,  current 
in  the  native  marts  from  western  Africa  to  central  Asia. 

In  addition,  there  are  two  curious  mongrel  dialects  of  some 
commercial  importance;  Lingua  Franca,  a  mixture  of  French, 
Italian,  and  Arabic,  spoken  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  ports; 
and  Pidgin  English  (Business  English)  a  mixture  of  English 
and  Chinese,  commonly  used  in  the  ports  of  the  western  Pacific. 

61.  The  Influence  of  Nationality.  The  modern  conception 
of  nationality  is,  in  brief,  that  a  man  belongs  to  the  nation 
for  which,  in  case  of  necessity,  he  must  bear  arms.  Never- 
theless, behind  this  tie  of  military  allegiance  there  are 
commonly  other  and  stronger  bonds  of  union,  such  as  com- 
munity of  language,  interests,  and  ideals.  In  default  of  such 
bonds,  the  mere  obligation  of  military  service  tends  to  lose 
its  force.  Austria-Hungary,  with  its  warring  races  and 
languages,  was  a  case  in  point. 

Moreover,  the  type  of  man  which  predominates  in  a 
nation  determines   its   attitude  toward  industry   and   trade. 


COMMERCE  DEPENDS  ON  MAN  43 

What  this  type  shall  be  depends  not  alone  on  the  soil,  climate, 
and  natural  resources  of  the  country,  but  also  on  its  history. 
Thus  commerce,  held  in  the  highest  honor  by  Phoenicians, 
was  by  the  Romans  esteemed  the  work  of  slaves.  In  Hke 
manner,  the  seven  hundred  years'  war  of  the  Spaniards  against 
the  Moors,  followed  by  the  Spanish  discovery  and  conquest 
of  the  New  World,  made  the  object  of  their  desire  wealth 
obtained  by  conquest  rather  than  by  industry  or  commerce. 

62.  The  Services  of  Government.  Unless  the  government 
be  able  and  willing  to  protect  life  and  property,  and  especially 
unless  the  courts  be  honest  and  courageous,  a  fatal  blight 
falls  upon  the  land.  "Men  will  not  work,  still  less  will  they 
save,  without  reasonable  prospect  of  enjoying  the  fruit  of 
their  labors.  This  explains  in  large  part  the  poverty  of  tropical 
South  America,  where  the  governments  sometimes  vie  with 
the  revolutionists  in  robbing  the  people,  and  the  courts  often 
represent  merely  the  will  of  the  dictator  of  the  hour. 

In  addition  to  protection,  the  government  sometimes 
renders  direct  aid  to  commerce:  for  example,  in  the  care  of 
rivers  and  harbors;  the  building  of  lighthouses,  life-saving 
stations,  roads,  bridges,  wharves,  docks,  and  canals;  the  preser- 
vation of  fish  and  forests;  the  reclamation  of  waste  lands  by 
irrigation  and  drainage;  the  publication  of  geological  maps, 
sailing  charts,  consular  reports,  weather  and  agricultural 
bulletins;  the  establishment  of  colonies;  and  the  protection  of 
commerce  across  the  sea.  These  governmental  aids  to  industry 
and  commerce  have  assumed  great  importance  in  recent  years, 
even  in  the  United  States,  as  shown  by  the  forest  reserves,  and 
the  comprehensive  plans  for  irrigation,  drainage,  and  the 
conservation  of  natural  resources. 

Finally,  there  is  an  increasing  tendency  for  governments  to 
go  into  business  on  their  own  account,  sometimes  as  a  source 
of  revenue,  more  often  to  insure  the  people  better  and  cheaper 
service.  In  this  country  the  government  operates  the  postal 
system,  while  many  cities  have  their'own  water  and  lighting 
plants.     In   Europe  this  tendency  has  gone  much   further. 


44  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Most  of  the  states  there  own  the  telegraph  lines  and  the  rail- 
ways; some  of  them  have  even  established  government  monop- 
olies in  salt,  tobacco,  opium,  gasoline,  and  alcoholic  Uquors. 

63.  The  System  of  Taxation.  To  support  the  govern- 
ment in  the  task  of  maintaining  order  and  giving  aid  to  com- 
merce, taxation  is  indispensable.  This  touches  industry  and 
trade  at  a  thousand  points.  A  tax  system  such  as  Philip  II 
once  tried  to  impose  on  the  Netherlands  (a  tax  on  every  sale 
of  every  article)  would  soon  ruin  the  most  flourishing  country ; 
while  on  the  other  hand  a  country  may  prosper  under  a  heavy 
burden  of  taxation,  provided  it  be  laid  on  all  citizens  in  pro- 
portion to  their  several  tax-paying  abilities. 

64.  The  Effect  of  Commercial  Policies.  In  modem  times 
taxes  on  imports  have  been  used  by  nearly  all  nations  as  a 
weapon  of  commercial  warfare  to  build  up  certain  of  their  own 
industries,  supposedly  at  the  expense  of  competing  nations. 

Some  countries  grant  direct  bounties  to  encoiirage  certain 
industries,  as  Canada  has  done  for  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron ; 
many  pay  subsidies  to  their  merchant  shipping  either  openly, 
or  indirectly,  as  by  excessive  payments  for  the  carriage  of  mails 
or  exemption  from  canal  or  harbor  dues. 

The  wisdom  of  this  whole  protective  system  is  indeed  denied 
by  many,  who  affirm  that  in  the  long  run  free  trade  would  be 
more  advantageous  for  all  nations.  Nevertheless  protection 
still  remains  the  general  policy  of  most  countries,  and  has  the 
support  of  a  considerable  party  even  in  England,  the  principal 
free- trade  country  of  Europe.  "Customs  lines  are  an  expres- 
sion of  the  struggle  for  existence  as  it  stands  at  the  beginning 
of  the  twentieth  century." 

65.  Weights,  Measures,  and  Grading.  If  business  is  to  be 
transacted  with  certainty  and  dispatch,  it  is  essential  that 
there  be  common  units  of  weight  and  measure.  With  the 
growth  of  international  trade,  it  has  become  increasingly 
desirable  that  these  units  be  common  to  all  the  nations.  For 
this  reason  the  metric  system,  invented  in  France,  has  been 
accepted  by  most   civilized   nations   except   those  speaking 


COMMERCE    DEPENDS    ON    MAN 


45 


English.  This  system,  being  based  on  ten  and  multiples 
thereof,  facilitates  reckoning.  On  the  other  hand,  English 
and  American  firms  doing  an  export  business  are  at  a 
disadvantage  because  pounds  and  feet  are  entirely  unfamiliar 
to  their  foreign  customers.     (Table  2.) 

Of  perhaps  equal  importance  is  the  system  of  government 
inspection  and  grading  of  staple  commodities  such  as  \vl:eat. 
It  at  once  insures  the  purchaser  against  fraud,  and  it  makes 
possible  the  storage  (Fig.  22)  and  shipment  of  the  commodity 
in  car-load  or  ship-load  lots.     The  system  of  grading  and 


Fig.  22.     The  modern  type  of  elevator  tn  use  at  Minneapolis, 
grain  is  stored  in  separate  steel  or  concrete  tanks  as  a 
protection  against  fire. 


The 


handling  in  bulk  has  contributed  hardly  less  than  improve- 
ments in  railways  and  steamships  to  cheapen  transportation 
and  to  extend  commerce. 

Another  step  in  the  same  direction  was  signalized  by  the 
United  States  Food  and  Drugs  Act,  extending  government 
inspection  and  certification  to  foods  and  drugs,  so  as  to  protect 
the  consumer  against  adulteration.  The  tendency  of  sucli 
legislation  is  to  inspire  greater  confidence  in  American  products 
abroad  and  thereby  to  create  a  better  market  for  them. 


46 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


66.  Time  Belts.  Since  time  is  marked  by  the  sun,  a  place 
farther  east  has  naturally  a  different  time  from  one  farther 
west.  To  avoid  the  confusion  caused  by  frequent  changes 
of  time,  the  railroads  some  years  ago  agreed  to  divide  North 
America  into  five  time  belts,  each  having  a  time  exactly  an 
hour  earlier  than  the  belt  next  toward  the  west.  Railroad 
or  standard  time  has  now  come  into  general  use  by  the  public. 
A  similar  plan  has  also  been  adopted  in  Europe.  (Fig.  23.) 

As  dawn  travels  in  an  unbroken  course  from  east  to  west 
around  the  world,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  confusion 


Fig.  23.     Standard  time  belts  in  the  United  States. 

as  to  dates,  to  fix  an  International  Date  Line  where  each  day 
shall  begin.  This  line  follows  in  the  main  the  180th  meridian 
west  of  Greenwich,  England.  When  it  is  Sunday  noon  at 
Greenwich,  Monday  is  just  beginning  at  the  International 
Date  Line.     (Fig.  14.) 

67.  The  Machinery  of  Exchange.  Long  before  any  organ- 
ized government  existed,  the  inconveniences  of  barter  caused 
people  to  use  as  a  measure  of  value  and  a  medium  of  exchange 
some  commodity,  such  as  cattle,  silver,  or  gold,  which  nearly 
every  one  desired.     Any  commodity  so  used  was  money. 


COMMEkCE   DEPENDS  OM  MAN  47 

Money  was  thus  not  created  by  government,  but  its  regu- 
lation is  now  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  the 
government  in  all  civilized  countries.  If  the  money  fluctuates 
in  value,  as  paper  money  did  in  the  United  States  during  the 
Civil  War,  no  man  can  tell  whether  he  will  gain  or  lose  by  any 
transaction;  consequently  confidence  is  destroyed  and  com- 
merce stagnates.  At  the  present  time,  all  important  countries 
except  China  base  their  money  on  gold;  that  is  to  say,  silver 
and  paper  money  are  made  redeemable  in  gold. 

Equally  essential  to  prosperity  is  a  sound  banking  system. 
If  banks  are  lacking,  or  if  they  do  not  command  general  confi- 
dence, the  people  will  hide  their  money,  which  is  thus  with- 
drawn from  circulation.  The  result  is  that  men  who  need  to 
borrow  money  must  pay  an  exorbitant  rate  of  interest,  and 
commerce  again  stagnates.  Moreover,  certain  banks  (Federal 
Reserve  Banks  in  the  United  States)  issue  bank  notes  which 
circulate  as  money;  while  checks  and  drafts  also,  in  eflect, 
take  the  place  of  money  in  the  payment  of  debts. 

Finally,  banks  settle  accounts  against  one  another  through 
institutions  known  as  clearing  houses,  where  credits  offset 
debits  and  only  the  differences  or  balances  are  paid  in  money. 
Essentially  the  same  result  is  reached  in  the  settlement  of 
international  trade  balances  by  the  use  of  foreign  exchange  or 
orders-to-pay,  drawn  by  merchants  in  one  country  against 
their  debtors  in  other  countries.  In  the  settlement  of 
international  trade  balances,  London  is  virtually  the  clearing 
house  for  the  world. 

68.  The  Bearing  of  Education  on  Commerce.  Prior  to 
the  industrial  revolution  inaugurated  by  steam  and  continued 
by  electricity,  most  industries  were  carried  on  by  hand ;  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  practical  arts  was  handed  down  from  genera- 
tion to  generation  by  the  apprentice  system.  In  the  last 
century,  however,  since  the  rise  of  science  and  the  victorious 
advance  of  power  machinery  into  nearly  all  the  fields  form- 
erly occupied  by  hand  labor,  the  apprentice  system  has  all  but 
disappeared  in  the  principal  industrial  countries. 


48  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

In  like  manner,  markets  were  local  in  the  old  days,  when 
nearly  all  industries  were  neighborhood  industries.  In  such 
circumstances,  the  ability  to  read  and  write  and  figure  sufficed 
for  the  transaction  of  business;  but  the  division  of  labor  and 
the  development  of  transportation  have  separated  ever  farther 
producers  and  consumers  and  thrust  between  them  the  whole 
immense  machinery  of  modern  commerce.  Moreover,  the 
expense  of  marketing  goods  is  an  integral  part  of  the  expense 
of  producing  them.  Inefficiency  in  commerce  thus  tends 
just  as  effectually  as  inefficiency  in  production  to  increase 
the  cost,  limit  the  output,  and  lower  the  quality  of  goods. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  while  the  old  method  of  training 
for  industry  and  commerce  has  broken  down,  the  necessity 
for  wide  information  and  trained  judgment  is  greater  to-day 
than  ever  before. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  all  the  leading  nations  have  at  last 
awakened  to  the  necessity  for  a  thorough  technical  education. 
Knowledge  is  power  no  less  among  nations  than  among 
men ;  and  just  as  the  untrained  man  cannot  compete  with  the 
trained  athlete,  so  the  uneducated  nation  is  helpless  against 
the  educated  nation.  In  tliis  age  of  machinery  and  speciali- 
zation, therefore,  that  country  which,  having  the  necessary 
natural  resources,  educates  most  effectively  for  agriculture, 
manufactures,  and  commerce  will  inevitably  become  master 
of  the  world's  markets.  To  such  education,  more  than  to 
any  other  single  factor,  was  due  llie  extraordinarily  rapid 
rise  of  Germany  as  a  commercial  nation;  but  German  ambi- 
tion was  directed  toward  political  as  well  as  commercial 
domination. 


VI— HOW  COMMERCE  DEPENDS  ON  ECONOMIC  FORCES 

69.  The  Nature  of  Economic  Development.  The  Greeks 
fabled  that  Athena,  the  goddess  of  wisdom,  sprang  full-armed 
from  the  head  of  Zeus;  and  the  Egyptians  traced  every  prac- 
tical art  to  some  special  deity.  But  we  know  that  skill  of  hand 
and  knowledge  of  natural  laws  have  been  slowly  acquired 
through  the  ages,  each  generation  adding  a  little  to  the 
precious  heritage,  until  civilized  man  has  now  chained  many 
of  the  forces  of  nature  to  his  chariot. 

However  complex  this  process  of  economic  development 
may  be  in  its  details,  it  is  singularly  simple  in  its  main  features. 

The  savage,  like  the  beast  of  the  forest,  is  dependent  for 
his  food  upon  what  nature  spontaneously  provides.  Civiliza- 
tion, in  the  economic  sense,  is  merely  an  organized  attempt 
to  increase  and  supplement  the  free  gifts  of  nature,  using  for 
this  purpose  the  materials  and  forces  available  in  nature. 
If  food  and  clothes  and  everything  else  needed  by  men  were 
supplied  by  natvire  as  abundantly  as  the  air  we  breathe — if, 
in  short,  as  Kingsley  fabled,. plum  puddings  grew  on  trees 
and  geese  flew  about  already  roasted — there  would  be  r.o 
need  for  labor,  and  there  would  consequently  be  no.  such  thi::g 
as  civilization. 

In  order  to  supplement  the  gifts  of  nature  most  effectively, 
civilized  man  has  hit  upon  the  division  of  labor.  It  is  an 
old  proverb  that  "a  jack  of  all  trades  is  master  of  none." 
On  the  other  hand,  a  man  who  confines  himself  to  one  line  of 
work  naturally  becomes  more  skiHful  in  it.  i\Ioreover,  some 
parts  of  the  world  are  especially  fitted,  by  climate  or  natural 
resources,  for  certain  industries.  Finally,  by  means  of  com- 
merce the  surplus  products  of  all  classes  of  workers  and  all 
parts  of  the  world  are  exchanged,  thus  giving  to  each  the 
benefit  of  the  skill  and  natural  resources  of  all. 

C49) 


so  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

The  essence  of  economic  development  is  thus:  (i)  increasing 
division  of  labor,  between  classes  and  between  countries; 
and  (2)  increasing  development  of  commerce,  both  internal 
and  foreign. 

70.  Geographic  Division  of  Labor.  So  far  as  transporta- 
tion facilities  permit,  each  industry  tends  to  become  localized: 
(i)  where  soil  and  climate  are  the  most  suitable;  (2)  where 
raw  materials  and  coal,  or  water  power,  are  the  most  abun- 
dant; (3)  where  the  largest  markets  are  easiest  of  access; 
(4)  where  there  is  already  at  hand  a  supply  of  labor  skilled 
in  that  particular  industry. 

It  rarely  happens  that  one  district  combines  all  of  these 
favoring  conditions.  Not  infrequently,  indeed,  an  industry 
once  firmly  rooted  will  hold  its  own  with  surprising  tenacity 
long  after  all  the  conditions  which  at  first  favored  its  devel- 
opment in  that  locality  have  passed  away;  for  there  remain 
capital  already  invested  in  that  industry  which  cannot  be 
readily  turned  to  other  uses,  business  experience,  business 
prestige,  and  a  supply  of  skilled  labor.  This  fact  serves  to 
explain  many  of  the  seeming  anomalies  of  economic 
geography,  such  as  the  persistence  of  metal  industries  in 
New  England  after  iron  ore  had  practically  ceased  being 
smelted  in  that  section. 

71.  The  Principle  of  Maximum  Returns.  The  four  factors 
controlling  the  localization  of  industries  (§70),  reduce,  in 
practice,  to  one — the  principle  of  maximum  returns. 

Resources  are  due  to  nature,  but  products  are  due  to  man: 
or  rather  they  are  due  to  individual  men,  each  seeking  to 
make  for  himself  the  best  possible  livelihood.  Nature  thus 
controls  industry  only  in  so  far  as  it  enters  into  the  economic 
calculations  of  individuals,  by  rendering  one  industry  more 
profitable  than  another  in  any  given  locality.  Moreover,  it 
is  not  enough  that  one  industry  yield  more  per  acre  than 
another;  it  must  yield  more  per  man.  If  a  farmer  can,  with 
the  same  labor,  grow  ten  acres  of  sugar  beets  at  a  profit  of 
$50.00   per  acre,   or  one  hundred  acres  of  corn  at  a  profit 


COMMERCE   DEPENDS    ON   ECONOMIC   FORCES  S' 

of  $10.00  an  acre,  he  will  assuredly  plant  his  land  to  corn, 
provided  he  has  land  enough.  The  principle  of  maximum 
returns  to  the  proprietor  of  the  business  is  consequently 
decisive  as  to  what  industries  shall  be  developed. 

It  is  indeed'  customary  and  convenient  to  speak  of  what 
the  "United  States"  produces,  or  exports,  or  imports.  In 
point  of  fact,  however,  industry  and  commerce  are  carried 
on,  not  by  nations,  but  by  individuals;  and  it  is  merely  the 
sum  total  of  private  production  and  trade  which  we  call 
the  national  production  and  trade. 

This  pursuit  of  personal  interest  sometimes  degenerates  into 
the  desire  to  get  something  for  nothing,  as  in  "bargain  hunting," 
or  into  the  craze  to  get  rich  quickly.  But  it  happens  that, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  the  interests  of  the  individual  and 
of  society  coincide.  In  order  to  secure  the  maximum  profit 
a  man  must  (except  in  case  of  monopolies)  so  direct  his  labor 
as  to  produce  the  most  goods  at  the  least  cost;  and  this, 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  society,  amounts  to  supple- 
menting most  effectively  the  free  gifts  of  nature. 

72.  Maximum  Returns  from  Land.  Where  land  is  prac- 
tically free  (as  it  was  on  the  American  frontier  a  generation 
ago),  the  farmer  aims  to  spread  his  labor  over  as  much  land 
as  possible,  so  long  as  he  thereby  increases  his  crops  in  the 
aggregate.  This  system  of  extensive  farming,  still  exemplified 
by  wheat  raising  in  the  Northwest,  yields  little  to  the  acre,  but 
much  to  the  man  and  the  team.  So  long  as  population  is 
scanty  and  land  is  cheap,  this  is  consequently  the  most 
profitable  system  of  farming. 

As  population  grows  denser  and  the  land  acquires  value, 
however,  more  intensive  farming  (that  is,  the  use  of  more 
labor  and  capital  on  a  given  amount  of  land)  becomes  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  maximum  profit.  After  this  has  been 
carried  to  a  certain  point,  it  involves  the  introduction  of  other 
crops,  such  as  sugar  beets,  fruit,  tobacco,  or  garden  truck, 
that  call  for  more  labor  but  yield  larger  returns  per  acre  than 
wheat  or  other  staple  crops. 


52  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

This  economic  principle  of  maximum  returns  often  clashes 
with  and  overrides  purely  geographical  considerations.  It  is 
evident,  for  example,  that  the  rising  value  of  land,  due  to  the 
introduction  of  other  crops,  may  force  wheat  into  a  subordinate 
place  in  the  crop  system  of  the  very  districts  best  adapted  to 
it  by  natiire — as  occurred  in  the  Genesee  Valley — or  may 
exclude  it  altogether  from  such  districts,  if  the  land  can  be 
used  more  profitably  in  other  ways. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  city  property.  Cheap  land 
usually  has  cheap  buildings  upon  it;  while  the  most  valuable 
sites  in  the  business  district  are  occupied  by  the  finest  office 
buildings,  for  only  such  buildings  can  pay  a  reasonable  return 
on  the  price  of  the  land. 

73.  Maximum  Returns  from  Capital.  Robinson  Crusoe, 
though  cast  upon  a  desert  island,  had  at  his  disposal  the 
resources  of  civilization,  represented  by  the  spoils  from  the 
wrecked  ship.  Without  such  resources,  he  must  have  made  a 
sorry  failure  in  his  attempt  to  wrest  a  living  from  nature. 

As  this  illustration  shows,  capital  in  the  form  of  tools  and 
other  instruments  of  production  is  indispensable  to  effective 
labor.  The  problem  for  the  farmer,  as  for  the  factory  manager, 
is  so  to  combine  capital  and  labor,  together  with  the  proper 
amount  of  land,  as  to  secure  the  maximum  returns. 

Many  operations,  such  as  reaping  grain  or  making  shoes, 
may  be  performed  either  by  hand  labor  or  by  machinery.  In 
each  case  the  cheaper  method  will  naturally  be  adopted. 
As  a  general  thing,  hand  labor  is  cheap  in  old  and  densely- 
peopled  countries,  but  dear  in  new  countries;  for  which  reason 
new  countries,  such  as  the  United  States,  make  extensive  use 
of  machinery. 

Extensive  use  of  machinery,  in  turn,  generally  favors  large- 
scale  production.  A  large  farm,  like  a  large  factory,  can 
more  profitaljly  use  expensive  machinery.  Large-scale  pro- 
duction in  turn  tends  to  localize  the  industries  where  machin- 
ery can  best  be  used.  Thus  the  bonanza  wheat  farms  of  the 
Northwest  and  of  the  Pacific  slope  have  been  made  possible 


COMMERCE    DEPENDS    ON    ECONOMIC    FORCES  53 

by  the   perfection  of    planting    and    harvesting    machinery. 

74.  Maximum  Returns  from  Labor.  The  cost  of  labor 
is  measured  not  so  much  by  the  wages  paid  as  by  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  laborer.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  highly  paid  labor 
is  usually  the  cheapest.  Thus  skilled  laborers  in  the  United 
States  as  a  rule  turn  out  more  goods  for  every  dollar  of  wages 
they  receive  than  do  laborers  in  countries  where  they  get 
only  ten  to  twenty  cents  a  day. 

There  are,  however,  some  industries  requiring  much  hand- 
labor,  which  are  poverty-industries,  carried  on  only  where 
there  is  a  large  population,  a  low  standard  of  living,  and 
consequently  a  low  rate  of  wages.  Examples  are  the  produc- 
tion of  raw  silk,  tea,  flax  fiber,  and,  in  the  United  States,  of 
ready-made  clothing.     (§494,  §498.) 

Moreover,  the  maximum  returns  both  for  the  individual 
and  for  society  are  attained  when  the  ablest  manager  is  in 
control  of  the  most  efficient  capital  goods  and  the  most  fertile 
or  best  located  land.  For  this  reason  an  able  farmer  is  seldom 
found  on  poor  land,  or  using  worn-out  machinery;  while  on 
the  other  hand  a  tumble-down  farm  and  a  tumble-down  farmer 
usually  go  together. 

Further,  labor  like  machinery  must  be  steadily  employed  if 
it  is  to  yield  the  maximum  returns.  This  principle  is  of  special 
importance  in  agriculture,  since  a  farmer  who  grows  only  one 
crop,  such  as  wheat,  may  be  idle  the  larger  part  of  the  year. 
This  is  a  clear  economic  waste.  As  a  general  thing,  a  farmer 
will  therefore  secure  the  maximum  returns  if  he  plants  several 
crops  which  demand  his  attention  at  different  times  of  the 
year.  For  this  reason,  crops  are  often  grown  far  beyond 
their  natural  geographical  limits,  like  oats  in  the  South,  if 
they  happen  not  to  require  attention  at  the  same  season  as 
the  principal  crop  of  the  section. 

75.  Complementary  Industries.  On  the  basis  of  the  season 
when  they  call  for  labor,  the  principal  field  crops  of  the  United 
States  have  been  divided'  into  three  non-competing  groups: 

'Taylor,  Agricultural  Economics. 
■   4 


54  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

the  winter  grains,  sown  in  the  fall;  the  spring  small  grains; 
■  and  the  crops  requiring  cultivation  early  in  the  growing  season 
(inter-tilled  crops)  such  as  cotton,  tobacco,  corn,  sugar  beets 
and  other  root  crops.  To  these  may  be  added  as  non-com- 
peting industries  the  raising  of  poultry  and  live  stock  for  the 
market,  since  these  require  attention  mostly  in  the  winter; 
while  dairy  cattle,  if  more  in  number  than  the  women  and 
children  can  care  for,  usually  take  the  attention  of  the  men 
away  from  the  crops  at  all  seasons.  For  this  reason,  stock 
raising  for  the  market  is  often  a  side  industry;  while  dairying 
tends,  wherever  established  (unless  in  the  form  of  winter  dairy- 
ing) to  supersede  the  production  of  crops  for  the  market. 

Again,  the  principle  of  maximum  returns  for  labor  often 
leads  to  the  establishment  of  complementary  manufacturing 
industries.  Examples  are  the  silk  and  other  textile  mills  (em- 
ploying chiefly  women)  near  iron  and  steel  mills  (employing 
only  strong  men)  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  in  the  Rhine  and 
Ruhr  basins  of  Europe,  and  elsewhere.  Such  textile  mills  are 
due  to  the  presence  of  unemployed  labor  rather  than  to  geo- 
graphical conditions. 

Further,  there  is  a  most  intimate  relation  between  the  sev- 
eral industries,  so  that  the  development  or  decline  of  one 
usually  affects  a  number  of  others.  Thus  the  growth  of 
intensive  or  scientific  farming  in  Europe  created  a  demand  for 
fertilizers,  which  has  given  rise  to  an  immense  nitrate  trade 
with  Chile;  and  this  trade,  giving  low  rates  on  return  cargoes, 
has  in  turn  favored  European  exports  to  South  America. 

76.  The  Influence  of  Substitution.  There  are  few  articles 
in  use  for  which  some  substitute,  more  or  less  imperfect  of 
course,  cannot  be  found.  For  example,  wheat  bread  is  more 
palatable  than  rye  bread ;  but  whenever  wheat  is  scarce  and 
expensive,  rye  is  largely  substituted  for  it,  thus  advancing 
somewhat  the  price  of  rye  and  checking  the  violent  rise  in  the 
price  of  wheat  which  would  otherwise  occur. 

Again,  whenever  a  new  and  cheaper  article  is  permanently 
substituted  for  one  previously  in  use,  it  gives  rise  to  a  new 


COMMERCE    DEPENDS    ON    ECONOMIC   FORCES  5$ 

industry,  which  more  or  less  supplants  an  old  industry.  In 
most  cases  this  involves  changes  in  the  geographic  division 
of  labor,  and  consequently  in  the  direction  of  commerce. 
Thus  petroleum  has  largely  taken  the  place,  for  lighting  and 
lubricating  purposes,  of  whale  oil.  This  substitution  has 
almost  driven  whaling  fleets  from  the  ocean.  So  also  cotton- 
seed oil,  a  by-product  of  cotton  ginning,  competes  sharply 
with  cocoanut  and  olive  oil;  butterine  and  oleomargarine, 
made  from  animal  fats  and  cotton-seed  oil,  compete  with 
butter;  and  beet  sugar  competes  with  cane  sugar. 

Perhaps  the  most  far-reaching  substitution  on  record  was 
that  of  cotton  for  other  textile  materials,  following  the  inven- 
tion of  the  cotton  gin,  which  multiplied  and  cheapened  many 
fold  the  supply  of  raw  cotton.  As  a  result,  the  South  special- 
ized in  cotton  culture,  depending  on  the  North  and  on 
Europe  for  manufactures;  and  there  grew  up  the  immense 
modern  trade  in  cotton  and  cotton  products. 

In  like  manner  the  phosphate  beds  in  the  South  have  stimu- 
lated the  demand  for  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  employed  in 
preparing  phosphatic  fertilizers. 

Finally  the  supply  of  some  articles  has  been  enlarged,  with 
revolutionary  effect  on  commerce,  through  the  use  of  by-prod- 
ucts previously  thrown  away.  In  some  cases  new  commodities 
of  great  importance  ha^-e  been  produced  in  this  way.  Thus 
gas  and  coal-tar  are  obtained  from  coal  during  the  slow  com- 
bustion necessary  to  produce  coke;  and  from  coal-tar  in  turn 
other  valuable  products  are  secured,  including  aniline  dyes 
which  have  largely  superseded  vegetable  and  animal  dyes. 

77.  The  Law  of  Decreasing  Returns.  In  every  sort  of 
production,  the  essential  factors  are  land,  labor,  and  capital. 
Moreover,  they  must  be  combined  in  the  right  proportion  if  they 
are  to  yield  the  maximum  profit ;  in  other  words,  a  man  would 
assuredly  need  more  men  and  more  teams  to  farm  a  section 
of  land  than  a  half  section.  If  this  right  proportion  is  once 
reached  and  an  attempt  is  then  made  to  enlarge  the  business 
without  increasing  all  three  factors,  the  right    proportion  is 


56  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

again  destroyed  and  the  returns  cannot  possibly  increase 
proportionately.  For  example,  if  the  farmer  in  question, 
after  getting  the  right  number  of  men  and  teams  for  his  sec- 
tion shduld  continue  to  hire  more  men  without  providing 
more  teams  or  machinery,  he  would  largely  increase  his 
expenses  without  getting  much  larger  crops. 

It  is  in  connection  with  land  that  this  law  of  decreasing  (or 
diminishing)  returns  is  most  important;  for  the  land  surface 
of  the  earth  is  limited  by  nature  and  cannot  be  materially 
increased  by  man.  It  is,  moreover,  in  agriculture  that  the 
land  plays  the  largest  role  as  a  factor  in  production.  Agri- 
culture is  consequently  the  industry  most  seriously  affected 
by  the  law  of  decreasing  returns. 

As  applied  to  land  used  in  agriculture,  this  law  amounts 
merely  to  the  statement  of  a  fact  familiar  to  every  farmer  boy 
— that  crops  do  not  continue  to  increase  in  proportion  to  the 
labor  employed  upon  the  land.  In  other  words,  two  men 
and  two  teams  cannot  raise  twice  as  much  wheat  or  cotton 
on  a  forty-acre  farm  as  one  man  and  one  team.  There  is 
no  getting  away  from  this  fundamental  fact,  even  though 
improved  machinery  or  methods  should  double  or  quadruple 
the  yield  of  the  land.  It  would  still  be  true  that  two  men 
could  not  raise  twice  as  much  wheat  or  cotton  on  a  forty-acre 
farm  as  one  man,  using  the  same  improved  methods  and 
machinery. 

In  these  circumstances  it  is  inevitable  that  as  population 
grows  denser  there  is  a  smaller  surplus  of  agricultural  products, 
especially  of  foodstuffs,  for  export,  until  finally  the  land  no 
longer  suffices  to  feed  the  people.  Such  has  been  the  expe- 
rience of  England  and  Germany;  and  already  New  England, 
like  Old  England,  contains  three  times  as  many  people  as  it 
can  feed  from  its  own  soil. 

No  nation,  therefore,  is  so  near  famine  as  the  one  which, 
with  a  dense  population,  devotes  itself  exclusively  to  agricul- 
ture. This  fact  receives  terrible  illustration  in  China  and 
India  where  the    people  can  barely  live  even  in    years  oi 


COMMERCE    DEPENDS    ON    ECONOMIC    FORCES  57 

abundant  harvests,  and  whenever  the  lean  years  come,  the 
natives  die  by  milHons  of  starvation  unless  fed  by  foreign 
charity.  In  such  countries,  indeed,  famine  is  practically  the 
normal  condition. 

78.  How  the  Law  of  Decreasing  Returns  is  Offset.  For 
thousands  of  years,  in  the  Old  World,  every  generation  faced 
this  grim  riddle :  how  to  maintain  an  increasing  population  on 
a  fixed  area  of  land?  For  failure  to  answer  it,  the  penalties 
imposed  by  Nature  were  famine  and  pestilence ;  and  the  only 
alternatives  open  to  men  were  emigration  or  war.  Until 
within  a  century,  therefore,  the  law  of  decreasing  returns  in 
agriculture  has  constantly  urged  nations  to  war  for  the  con- 
quest of  more  land,  since  that  seemed  the  only  way  of  increas- 
ing their  food  supply. ^  Not  the  ambition  of  kings  but  the 
struggle  for  existence  of  nations  was  thus  the  impelling  force 
behind  most  of  the  great  wars  of  history. 

With  the  introduction  of  power  machinery  and  of  steam, 
however,  a  new  answer  to  the  old  riddle  became  possible; 
namely,  the  export  of  manufactured  goods  and  the  import  of 
foodstuffs  from  new  countries  which  are  still  sparsely  popu- 
lated. This  is  obviously  the  geographic  division  of  labor  on 
a  scale  never  before  dreamed  of.  England,  where  power 
machinery  and  steam  traction  were  invented,  showed  the  way 
in  this  solution  of  the  problem;  and  all  the  densely  populated 
countries  possessed  of  coal  or  water  power,  '^ogether  with  the 
requisite  skill  and  intelligence,  have  long  since  hastened  to 
follow  England's  example.  This  was  the  true  meaning  of 
Chancellor  von  Caprivi's  famous  declaration  that  "Germany 
must  export  either  men  or  goods." 

79.  Economic  Competition  and  War.  Commercial  suprem- 
acy thus  means  everything  in  the  twentieth  century  that 
military  supremacy  meant  in  the  days  of  Alexander  and  of 
Caesar.     At  bottom,   in  fact,   the  ever-growing  competition 

iSee  the  author's  War  and  Economics  in  the  Political  Science  Qiiar' 
terly,  December,  1900;  also  reprinted  in  Carver's  Sociology  and  Social 
Progress. 


58 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


between  manufacturing  nations  for  foreign  markets  is  a  form 
of  warfare  in  which  the  intelHgent  and  industrious  survive, 
while  the  others  are  crowded  to  the  wall  among  those  desig- 
nated by  Lord  Salisbury  as  "the  dying  nations." 

Already  this  struggle  for  markets  has  become  not  less  keen 
than  was  of  old  the  struggle  for  land.  Moreover,  it  has  caused 
the  foundation  of  new  and  the  enlargement  of  old  colonial 
empires.  In  order  to  guard  their  colonies  and  trade  routes 
the  nations  of  Europe  have  built  mighty  navies  and  sown  the 


Courtesy  of  the  Honorable  Bartlett  Tripp,  former  U.  8.  CommiEsioner  to  S«mo» 

Fig.  24.      Pago   Pago   Harbor,  where  a  coaling   station  for   the 
United  States  Navy  is  now  located. 

seas  with  fortified  cable  and  coaling  stations.  (Fig.  24.)  Finally, 
more  than  one  war  has  been  waged,  like  that  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  to  secure  or  avert  a  monopoly  of  trade.  When 
all  is  said  and  done  the  cannon  remains  the  last  argument, 
not  of  kings,  as  the  old  inscription  reads, ^  but  of  nations;  and 
it  is  true  to-day,  as  never  before,  that  the  path  to  national 
prosperity  and  power  lies  over  the  waves. 

^Formerly  engraved  on  cannons:    Ultima  ratio  reguni. 


VII— THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


"Those  inventions  which  abridge  distance  have  done  most  for  civilization.''' 

— Alacaulay. 

80.  The  Influence  of  Transportation.  A  tethered  horse 
cannot  graze  beyond  the  length  of  his  tether;  nor  can  com- 
merce extend  farther,  at  any  given  period,  than  the  expense 
of  transportation  allows. 

Many  of  the  older  generation  now  living  have  heard  their 
grandmothers  tell  how  clothing  was  spun  and  woven  at 
home.  In  those  days  nearly  everything  was  produced  on 
the  premises  where  it  was  consumed;  to-day,  the  four  quarters 
of  the  earth  are  ransacked  to  furnish  what  we  eat,  wear,  and 
use  in  our  homes.  This  change  is,  in  the  main,  the  result  of 
improved    trans-  ^  j  10  /j  so 

portation,  which 
promotes  the  geo- 
graphic division  of 
labor  and  con- 
sequently the 
development  of 
commerce  (§69, 70). 
(Fig.  25.)  Thus,  New  England  now  depends  largely  on  the 
Dakotas  for  wheat,  sending  cotton  goods  and  shoes  in  exchange. 
So  also,  in  respect  to  meat,  wool,  cotton,  and  all  other  staple 
products;  each  is  more  and  more  confined  to  those  regions  best 
fitted  for  its  production. 

So  intimate,  indeed,  is  the  relation  of  transj)ortation  to 
commerce  tliat  every  improvement  in  transportation  is  felt 
immediately,  like  an  electric  shock,  through  every  part  of  the 
industrial  and  commercial  world. 

81.  Communication  by  Messengers.  Among  savages  and 
at  early  stages  of  civilization  there  was  greater  need  for  the 
communication  of  intelligence,  usually  relating  to  military  or 

(59) 


iqoo . 
iSSo. 
iSbo. 
1840 . 
1820. 
iSoo  ■ 


Data  frnm  Trampnrlat' 
■florid,  Iiqu.  of 


Fig.  25.  The  development  of  world  com- 
merce in  billions  .of  dollars,  during  the 
nineteenth  century. 


6o  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

political  affairs,  than  for  the  transportation  of  commodities. 
Such  information  was  first  conveyed  by  messenger.  The 
runners  employed  by  the  Indians  and  by  most  ancient  nations 
sometimes  covered  incredible  distances.  Phidippides,  for 
example,  ran  from  Athens  to  Sparta  (nearly  150  miles  by  the 
road)  in  two  days,  before  the  battle  of  Marathon,  to  announce 
that  the  Persians  had  landed.  The  Peruvians  before  the 
Spanish  Conquest,  had  regular  relays  of  men  stationed  about 
a  league  apart, who  were  thus  able  to  cover  the  ground  at  high 
speed,  like  runners  in  a  modern  relay  race.  The  ancient 
Persians  had  similar  relays  of  mounted  messengers  on  all  their 
main  highways. 

From  the  ancient  use  of  heralds  to  convey  messages  to 
other  nations  has  come  the  whole  modern  system  of  consuls, 
who  look  after  business  interests,  and  ambassadors,  who  have 
charge  of  political  affairs,  in  foreign  countries.  Their  impor- 
tance has  constantly  grown  with  the  increase  of  commerce. 
In  barbarous  states,  like  Turkey  and  China,  consuls  repre- 
senting civilized  nations  even  have  authority  to  try  cases  in 
which  their  countrymen  are  involved. 

82.  The  Post.  With  the  advance  of  civilization  written 
messages  came  to  prevail.  The  Romans  were  probably  the 
first  to  organize  a  regular  postal  service  (cursus  puklicus) 
which,  however,  was  intended  solely  for  the  use  of  the  govern- 
ment. National  posts  date  from  about  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  rapid  and  reliable  service  of  to-day  is  of  course  altogether 
dependent  on  steam  transportation.      (Fig.  52.) 

The  original  idea  was  to  make  the  post  a  source  of 
revenue  for  the  government  by  cliarging  twenty-five  cents  or 
more  for  carrying  a  letter  even  a  few  miles.  In  1840,  however, 
the  "Penny  Post"  was  introduced  in  England.  In  1845 
the  letter  rate  in  the  United  States  was  reduced  to  five  cents, 
and  later  to  three  cents  (1S51)  and  two  cents  (1883).  Similar 
reductions  were  also  made  in  other  countries.  These  radical 
reforms  vastly  increased  the  volume  of  postal  business,  and 
consequently  the  commercial  importance  of  the  post. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    TRANSPORTATION 


6i 


The  International  Postal  Union,  which  began  operations 
in  1875,  now  includes  all  civilized  and  many  barbarous  states. 
The  foreign  letter  rate  is  five  cents,  whatever  the  distance; 
though  the  United  States  applies  the  domestic  rate  of  two  cents 
not  only  to  its  outlying  possessions,  but  also  to  Cuba,  Panama, 
British  Guiana,  the  British  West  Indies,  Dominican  Republic, 
Mexico,  Canada,  Newfoundland,  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and 
New  Zealand. 

In  effect,  the  modern  postal  service  has  made  all  men  through- 
out the  world  neighbors,  and  possible  customers,  of  one  another. 

83.  The  Use  of  Signals.  Signals,  like  messengers,  were 
among  the  earliest  means  of  communication.     The  ancient 


Pair  weather 


Rain  or  snow       Local  rain 
or  snow 


Teinperainre 


te 


Cold  wave 


h    1^  |i    IS.  n 


N.  E.  ivinds 


S.  E.  winds  N.  IV.  winds         S.  IV.  -winds  Hurricane 

warning 
Fig.  26.     Signals  used  by  the  United  States  Weather  Btireau. 


Gauls  stationed  men  within  sight  of  one  another  to  wave  or 
shout  the  news,  which  thus  crossed  the  country  in  a  day. 
Signal  smokes  were  commonly  used  by  the  Indians,  and 
signal  fires  made  the  coming  of  the  Spanish  Armada  known 
throughout  all  England  in  a  few  hours. 

Signals  are  still  widely  used.  Fog  horns  and  lighthouses 
warn  vessels  away  from  dangerous  coasts  or  guide  them  into 
port.  The  weather  forecasts  are  indicated  b}^  flags  (Fig.  26) 
placed  on  towers  and  trains.  The  Army  has  a  regular  code  of 
signals  by  mirrors  that  flash  the  sun's  rays,  and  by  flags,  the 
latter   system^   popularly    called  "wig-wag."     Vessels  at  sea 


6a  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

communicate  by  flags  or  cannon.  At  night  rockets  are  used 
or  the  searchlight  is  flashed  against  the  clouds.  Another 
signaling  device  used  at  sea  is  a  submarine  bell  attached 
to  the  ship.  The  sound  carries  through  the  water  for  con- 
siderable distances  and  is  caught  by  receivers  on  other  vessels. 

84.  The  Telegraph.  The  greatest  triumph  of  the  signal 
system  came,  however,  through  the  use  of  electricity  (1844). 
Wires  and  cables  running  everywhere  over  the  land  and  under 
the  sea  have  now  literally  annihilated  distance,  so  far  as 
communication  is  concerned;  though  it  is  still  true  that  we 
pay  a  tribute  to  Nature  (and  perhaps  still  more  to  the  tele- 
graph and  cable  companies)  in  the  form  of  heavy  tolls  for 
long-distance  messages. 

A  still  more  marvelous  thing  is  wireless  telegraphy.  By 
piercing  dense  fogs  and  warning  vessels  of  one  another's 
presence,  it  has  immensely  increased  the  safety  of  ocean  navi- 
gation. Thanks  to  wireless  telegraphy,  passengers  now 
receive  messages  in  mid-ocean  from  their  friends  ashore,  and 
read  the  news  in  a  daily  paper  published  on  shipboard. 

The  telegraph  has  long  since  become  an  indispensable 
factor  in  commerce.  It  forms,  indeed,  the  chief  means  by 
which  the  world-wide  operations  of  modern  industry  and 
transportation  are  marshaled  and  controlled.  In  particular, 
it  is  essential  to  the  safe  and  rapid  operation  of  railways.  It 
diminishes  the  stock  which  merchants  need  to  carry,  because 
orders  can  be  speedily  filled  from  the  factory.  It  extends  the 
market  for  staple  commodities,  such  as  wheat  and  cotton,  till 
it  includes  the  whole  country  or  even  the  world.  By  so 
doing,  it  lessens  the  range  and  violence  of  price  fluctuations; 
for  a  crop  failure  in  one  country  may  be  offset  by  an  abundant 
harvest  in  another,  and  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  averts 
the  danger  of  famine  prices. 

85.  The  Telephone.  For  local  affairs  the  telegraph  has 
been  largely  superseded  by  the  telephone,  which  first  came 
into  general  notice  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  Phila- 
delphia (1876).     By  means  of  this  marvelous  instrument,  the 


DEVELOPMENT   OF    TRANSPORTATION  63 

human  voice  is  audible  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 

The  telephone,  moreover,  competes,  not  only  with  the  tele- 
graph, but  also  with  the  post,  the  railroad,  and  the  street 
railway.  One  of  the  most  effective  telephone  advertisements 
reads:  "Don't  go,  don't  write,  don't  telegraph,  telephone!" 
The  telephone  enables  business  to  be  transacted  at  almost  any 
distance  and  in  a  fraction  of  the  time  formerly  required.  The 
retailer  is  thus  relieved  from  the  necessity  of  carrying  a  large 
stock,  since  the  wholesaler  is  within  reach  at  a  minute's 
notice;  and  the  customer,  in  turn,  is  no  longer  dependent  on 
the  small  neighborhood  store,  but  has  at  his  command  without 
loss  of  time  the  large  retail  or  department  stores. 

In  recent  years  the  telephone  has  begun  to  penetrate  the 
country,  dispelling  the  loneliness  which  has  hung  about 
the  farmer's  home  and  bringing  him  in  contact,  not  only  with 
the  city  stores,  but  with  the  daily  markets  and  events  of  the 
whole  wide  world.  He  is  thus  enabled  to  sell  his  crops  and 
order  his  supplies  without  loss  of  time  and  whenever  the  prices 
are  most  advantageous. 

86.  The  Tests  of  Transportation.  As  distinguished  from 
communication,  which  has  to  do  with  ideas,  transportation  in 
the  narrower  sense  is  the  conveyance  of  persons  or  commodi- 
ties from  place  to  place.  The  tests  of  its  efficiency  are:  (i) 
cheapness,  that  is  economy  of  force;  (2)  speed,  that  is  econ- 
omy of  time.  Efficienc}^  means  the  conquest  of  natural  bar- 
riers to  commerce,  such  as  seas,  mountains,  and  deserts. 

To  economize  force  and  time,  the  most  direct  route,  other 
things  being  equal,  is  the  best.  At  sea  it  is  possible,  in  the 
main,  to  follow  a  direct  route;  but  it  is  impossible  on  land, 
since  that  would  involve  the  construction  of  a  road  from  every 
place  in  the  world  to  every  other  place.  Consequently,  the 
best  that  can  be  done  is  to  provide  direct  roads  between  great 
cities,  with  secondary  roads  branching  off  from  these. 

87.  Methods  of  Transportation.  The  development  of 
transportation  may  be  considered  with  reference  to  the  pro- 
pelling power,  the  way  traversed,  or  the  conveyance  used. 


64  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  first  power  employed  in  transportation  was  muscular, 
derived  either  from  man  or  beast.  Later,  natural  forces  such 
as  winds,  tides,  and  river  currents  came  into  use,  mainly  in 
connection  with  navigation.  Finally,  within  the  last  150 
years,  steam,  and  still  later  electricity,  generated  either  by 
steam  or  water  power,  have  become  the  great  motive  powers. 
Gasoline  and  compressed  air  are  also  of  increasing  impor- 
tance. All  these  are  natural  forces,  but  artificially  generated 
and  controlled. 

With  reference  to  the  way  traversed,  transportation  is 
by  land,  by  water,  or  by  air;  and  land  transportation  may  be 
divided  into  that  carried  on  by  road,  by  railroad,  by  pipe  line, 
or  by  wire. 

Finally,  traffic  by  road  is  distinguished  according  to  the 
conveyances  used — porters,  pack  animals,  sleds,  or  wheeled 
vehicles;  and  wheeled  vehicles  may  be  further  distinguished 
as  wagons,  bicycles,  automobiles,  and  railway  cars. 

88.  Human  Porterage.  It  would  seem,  sad  to  relate, 
that  the  first  "beast  of  burden"  was  woman.  This  was  the 
case  among  savages — for  example,  the  American  Indians — 
partly  because  the  men  objected  to  labor,  partly  because  they 
had  to  guard  against  sudden  attacks  by  wild  beasts  or  hostile 
tribes.  This  use  of  woman  still  survives  in  many  parts  of 
Europe,  where  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  a  peasant 
woman  and  a  dog  hitched  side  by  side  to  a  market  cart. 

In  some  parts  of  Africa,  where  domestic  animals  suffer  from 
the  dreaded  tsetse  fly,  human  porters  are  the  principal  means 
of  land  conveyance.  In  China  and  Japan,  moreover,  the 
porters,  sedan-bearers,  and  wheelbarrow  and  jinrikisha  men 
perform  the  most  extraordinary  labor,  all  for  a  few  cents  a 
day,  because  overpopulation  (relative  to  the  means  of  pro- 
ducing wealth)  has  rendered  human  labor  cheaper  than  that 
of  beasts. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  usually  no  mode  of  transportation 
so  expensive,  in  proportion  to  the  weight  moved,  as  human 
porterage.     (Fig.  27.) 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    TRANSPORTATION 


65 


89.  Pack  Animals.  The  domestication  of  animals  suit- 
able for  labor  was  thus  a  red-letter  day  in  the  history  of  man, 
providing  for  the  first  time  not  only  a  reliable  food  supply,  but 
also  ready  means  of  transportation  and  the  power  necessary 
for  agriculture.  It  is  hardly  an  accident  that  civilization  first 
developed  in  the  Old  World,  where  animals  capable  of  domes- 
tication abounded,  and  that  the  most  advanced  civilization  in 
America  before  the  Spanish  Conquest,  the  Peruvian,  was 
associated  with  the  llama  and  alpaca. 

In  the  mountains  and  in  backward  countries  generally, 
pack  animals  are  still  the  principal  means  of  transportation. 


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Courtesy  of  the  nonorable  0.  V.  Austin 

Fig.  27.     Transportation  by  man  power.     The  hui!,c  A'ai/  is 
draii'ii  by  one  man. 

especially  the  sure-footed  ass,  the  mule,  and,  in  the  Andes,  the 
llama.  But  in  arid  regions,  such  as  central  Australia  (Fig.  28) 
and  the  district  around  Goldfield,  Nev.,  the  motor  car  and 
the  traction  engine  with  its  train  of  wide-tired  wagons  have 
come  into  use.  In  fact,  they  have  even  invaded  the  desert 
regions  of  the  Old  World  and  now  threaten  to  displace  the 
picturesque  camel  caravans,  which  for  untold  ages  have 
moved  on  silent  feet  through  the  desert  solitudes. 


66 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


90.     Wheeled    Transportation.     The    cart    was    quite    as 
epoch-inaking  in  its  day  as  the  locomotive.     The  first  carts, 


BTOS&gdT't—'S.^. 


Fig.  28.    The  modern  "ship  of  the  desert" — Traction  engine  and 
wagons  in  Australia. 

to  be  sure,  were  crude  enough.  They  were  entirely  of  wood, 
two-wheeled,  hard  to  move,  and  made  the  most  unearthly 
creaking  at  every  turn  of  the  wheels.  Such  were  the  carts  in 
which  the  ancient  Germans  carried  their  families  on  their 
migrations,  and  in  which  the  French  traders  came  to  St.  Paul 
from  the  Red  River  Valley  about  fifty  years  ago.  (Fig.  29.) 
Carts  of  this  type  are  still  largely  used  in  Mexico  and  other 
backward  countries.  But  crude  as  they  were,  wooden  carts 
increased  at  least  tenfold  the  loads  that  could  be  moved. 


Fig.  29.     The  old  way — Red  River  carts. 

With   improved  wagons,  the   increase  was  twenty-five  to  a 
hundredfold.     The  invention  of  the  cart  was  consequently  the 


DEVELOPMENT    OF  ^TRANSPORTATION  67 

basis  of  land  transportation  and,  therefore  in  great  measure,  of 
civilization,  from  the  age  of  the  Pyramid  Builders  to  that  of 
Queen  Victoria. 

91.  The  Construction  of  Roads.  Wheeled  vehicles,  how- 
ever, were  clearly  limited  to  the  open  plains  until  roads  had 
been  constru-cted.  Road  building,  therefore,  marked  the 
next  great  advance  in  land  transportation.  First  begun  in 
Mesopotamia,  this  work  was  carried  out  on  a  grand  scale  by 
the  kings  of  Persia  and  later,  in  a  still  more  magnificent  way, 
by  the  Romans,  whose  roads  were  apparently  built  not  for 
time  but  for  eternity. 

For  nearly  two  thousand  years  all  western  Europe  depended 
on  these  Roman  roads,  using  and  abusing  them  with  seldom  a 
thought  of  repairs.  It  was  not  until  the  nineteenth  century 
(18 1 6),  when  Macadam  applied  the  method  of  road-making 
named  from  him,  that  decent  roads  again  began  to  be  con- 
structed on  any  considerable  scale.  But  at  present,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  mountainous  districts  in  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, which  still  linger  in  the  pack-mule  and  wooden-cart  stage 
of  civilization,  every  country  in  western  Europe  has  a  network 
of  splendid  highways,  stone-surfaced  and  with  easy  grades. 

Unfortunately,  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  United  States. 
For  the  most  part,  especially  in  the  West,  the  country  districts 
still  depend  on  dirt  roads  that  become  quagmires  for  several 
months  each  year,  and  even  in  their  best  condition  compel 
loads  to  be  reduced  nearly  three-fourths  as  compared  with 
macadamized  roads.^  (Fig.  30.)  On  dirt  roads,  haulage 
thus  costs  fully  twenty-five  cents  per  ton-mile  against  six 
cents  on  macadamized  roads.  Moreover,  the  farmers  are 
forced  to  market  their  crops  whenever  the  roads  are  good, 
even  though  (as  usually  happens)  the  prices  are  then  low; 
and  the  railroads  are  compelled  to  keep  thousands  of  cars 
standing  idle  most  of  the  year  in  order  to  have  enough  when 
the  crops  are  moving.  The  cost  of  marketing  crops  is  thus  a 
crushing    burden    on    American    agriculture    and    commerce. 

^Jenks,  Road  Legislation,  p.  12.  (Am.  Econ.  Assoc.  1889.) 


Court     \     f  IJepartment  of  Agrioultun 

Fig.  30.     More  eloquent  than  words — A  mud  road  and  the  same 
road  macadamized. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   TRANSPORTATION  69 

92.  The  Railroad.  Distances  are  measured,  for  many  of 
the  purposes  of  commerce,  not  in  miles  but  in  hours.  All  the 
world  to-day,  by  reason  of  steam,  is  no  larger  than  the  "tight 
little  island"  of  Britain  a  century  ago.  Csesar  and  Napoleon, 
although  separated  by  eighteen  centuries,  yet  saw  about  them 
essentially  the  same  modes  of  life,  labor,  and  trayel;  but  the 
present  age,  separated  by  less  than  a  century  from  Napoleon, 
is  unlike  any  that  ever  went  before.  Previous  ages  could  judge 
of  the  future  by  the  past ;  but  we  have  no  means  of  telling  what 
the  future  may  bring  forth.  In  all  that  pertains  to  industry, 
commerce,  and  government  we  are  afloat  on  an  unknown  sea 
without  compass  or  rudder.  This  transformation  is  the  work 
of  steam,  aided  in  recent  years  by  gasoline  and  electricity. 


CourteBjof  C  0.  W    Ry. 

Fig.  31.     Fifteen  years'  development  in  locomotives. 

The  railroad,  however,  began  modestly  enough  (1825), 
being  little  more  than  a  stagecoach  drawn  by  steam;  but 
the  march  of  invention  soon  raised  its  efficiency  to  the  point 
where  it  superseded,  except  for  short  distances,  all  other 
modes  of  land  transportation. 

During  the  last  thirty  years  better  roadbeds  and  the  use  of 
Bessemer  steel  for  rails  and  engines  have  permitted  the  weight 
of  locomotives  (Fig.  31)  and  pressure  of  steam  to  be  quadrupled, 
while  the  power  from  a  given  weight  of  fuel  has  been  tripled. 
Steel  cars  are  now  displacing  wooden  cars,  just  as  steel  ships 
have  displaced  wooden  ships,  thus  permitting  the  carload  to  be 
tripled.  For  these  reasons  the  maximum  train  load  to-day 
is  fully  ten  times  what  it  was  in    1850.     Nevertheless,  the 


70 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


airbrake  will  stop  the  heaviest  train  in  a  short  space.  Special 
types  of  cars  have  also  been  developed  for  live  stock,  iron 
ore,  coal,  and  perishable  products.  Refrigerator  and  heater 
cars  enable  perishable  goods  to  be  shipped  across  the  conti- 
nent, alike  in  summer  or  in  winter.  Electric  railways,  reaching 
out  in  all  directions  from  the  cities,  are  now  extending  modern 
transportation  facilities  even  to  rural  districts.     (Fig.  32.) 


Fig.  32.     Trolley  lines  in  the  Middle  West. 

All  of  these  improvements  affecting  the  three  parts  of  the 
railway — track,  engine,  and  car — have  proportionately  cheap- 
ened transportation,  promoted  the  geographic  division  of 
labor,  and  therefore  increased  commerce.      (Fig.  33.) 

93.  Pipe  Lines.  T]ie  earliest  form  of  the  pipe  line  was  an 
open  conduit.  Canals  thus  served  to  irrigate  dry  regions  like 
Egypt,  drain  swampy  countries  like  Holland,  and  furnish 
cities  with  water.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  built  splendid 
stone  aqueducts,  whose  ruins,  dotting  all  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  are  among  the  most  impressive  monuments 
of  antiquity. 


a.     The  familiar  way — Twentieth  Century  Limited. 


Courtesy  of  Uureau  of  Slanufactuiei 

h.     The  new  way — Electric  traction. 


Courtesy  of  Aero  rublilhing  Co 

c.    The  newest  ivay — Airplane. 
Fig.  33.    Modern  progress  in  transportation. 


72 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


At  present  conduits  are  usually  closed,  except  drainage  and 
irrigation  canals.  Closed  conduits  or  pipe  lines  serve  some- 
times for  irrigation  purposes,  and  commonly  for  carrying  city 
water,  gas,  heat,  sewage,  and  petroleum.  The  oil  pipes 
extend  for  hundreds  of  miles  across  valleys  and  mountains, 
usually  from  oil  fields  to  tidewater.  (Fig.  71.)  Steam  or 
hydraulic  pumps  are  used  where  gravity  will  not  suffice  to 
move  the  oil.  The  cost  of  transporting  oil  by  pipe  lines  is  less 
than  a  third  of  the  average  railway  freight  rate  in  the  United 
States. 1     Even  for  irrigation  purposes  pipe  lines  are  coming 


C     "     ,       '     ^  Geological  Surrey 

Fig.  34.     Old  irrigation  flume  and  new  redwood  stave  pipe 
replacing  it, 

into  use,  as  they  can  be  carried  over  valleys  without  expen- 
sive trestles.  (Fig.  34.)  In  some  cities,  pneumatic  tubes, 
built  on  the  principle  of  a  boy's  air  rifle,  are  used  to  expedite 
the  handling  of  mail  matter  between  postal  stations. 

94.  Inland  Navigation.  Friction  is  less  in  the  water  than 
on  the  land;  a  horse  can  draw  many  times  the  weight  in  water 
that  he  can  by  road.  Moreover,  natural  water  ways  are  fur- 
nished free,  and  they  never  wear  out.     For  these  reasons 

'The  Bureau  of  Corporations  reported  the  cost  by  trunk  pipe  lines 
as  2.38  mills  per  ton  per  mile,  against  an  average  freight  rate  by 
rail  of  7.59  mills  in  1907       (Report  on  Transportation  of  Petroleum.) 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   TRANSPORTATION  7$ 

rivers  constituted,  until  the  last  half  century,  the  principal 
highways  of  inland  commerce  alike  in  Europe  and  America. 

The  first  effect  of  steam  was  temporarily  to  increase  the 
value  of  inland  water  ways,  because  a  steamboat  cost  only 
a  few  thousand  dollars,  while  a  railroad  called  for  milHons. 
The  half  century  before  our  Civil  War  was  thus,  in  America 
at  least,  the  golden  age  of  river  navigation.  But  thereafter, 
the  greater  regularity  and  speed  of  railways,  especially  where 
the  water  ways  were  icebound  in  winter,  caused  many  rivers 
once  thronged  with  traffic  to  be  practically  deserted.  Such  was 
the  fate  of  the  Missouri.  The  same  fate  overtook  the  smaller 
canals,  while  many  others  w^ere  bought  up  by  the  railways 
and  either  put  out  of  service  or  prevented,  by  means  of 
high  canal  tolls  and  inefficient  service,  from  competing  with 
the  railways. 

The  almost  exclusive  reign  of  the  railway  is  now,  in  turn, 
drawing  to  a  close.  Water  transportation  has  proved  indis- 
pensable if  bulky  commodities  such  as  stone,  coal,  ore,  and 
timber  are  to  be  handled  on  a  large  scale  at  low  cost.  To 
move  such  commodities  downstream  flat  steel  barges  have 
been  designed  which  carry  a  heavy  load  yet  draw  only  two 
or  three  feet  of  water.  Even  streams  with  very  rapid  currents 
are  rendered  navigable  by  a  steel  chain  in  mid-channel  which 
the  vessel  grips  with  a  wheel  driven  by  steam.  In  all  these 
improvements  the  lead  has  been  taken  by  Europe. 

To  compete  with  the  railway,  however,  except  for  down- 
stream traffic,  a  greater  depth  of  w\ater  is  necessary  than  in 
former  years.  The  census  of  1890  counted  all  rivers  as 
navigable  which  had  a  depth  of  three  feet;  but  to-day  any 
river  having  a  depth  of  less  than  six  feet  is  inadequate  and 
almost  useless  for  general  transportation.  Canals,  being  nar- 
rower and  navigated  at  a  slower  speed  in  order  to  avoid  wash- 
ing away  the  banks,  are  of  little  use  unless  twelve  feet  or  more 
in  depth  so  as  to  carry  deep-draft  barges. 

95.  Ship  Canals.  Most  important  of  inland  water  ways  are 
those  ship  canals  which  pierce  land  barriers,  thereby  connecting 


74  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

different  seas,  like  the  Suez  Canal.  The  Panama  Canal  will 
eventually  modify  ocean  trade  routes  no  less  profoundly  than 
did  the  Suez  Canal.  In  tlie  second  rank  are  the  Kiel  Canal, 
from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Baltic;  and  the  Corinth  Canal, 
from  the  Adriatic  to  the  .^gean. 

In  another  class,  ranking  only  a  little  below  deep  navigable 
rivers,  are  those  ship  canals  which  carry  the  sea  to  inland 
cities.  Such  are  the  great  ship  canals  extending  from  the 
sea  to  Manchester,  Amsterdam  (on  a  bay  too  shallow  for 
large  vessels),  Rotterdam,  Ghent,  and  Bruges. 

Measured  by  tonnage,  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  canals,  connecting 
lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  though  inland,  far  outrank  even 
the  Suez  and  Panama  canals. 

96.  The  Unity  of  the  Sea.  The  Greeks  under  Xenophon, 
fighting  their  way  back  from  Babylon  against  all  the  forces 
of  the  Persian  monarchy,  came  one  day  to  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain whence  they  caught  the  gleam  of  the  distant  sea.  Forth- 
with they  fell  to  weeping  and  embracing  one  another,  crying 
out,  "Thalassa!  Thalassa!"  (The  Sea!  The  Sea!);  for  they 
knew  that  they  were  saved.  However  distant,  it  Vv^as  the  same 
sea  which  washed  the  shores  of  their  native  land. 

This  fact  is  fundamental  in  history  and  commerce:  the 
lands  are  many  but  the  sea  is  one.  Mountains,  deserts,  even 
continents  separate,  but  the  sea  unites.  Whoever  stands 
upon  its  shores  has  before  him  an  open  pathway  which  he  may 
follow,  wherever  the  salt  waves  dash  and  the  sea  winds  blow, 
even  to  the  ends  of  the  earth.  It  is  this  fact  which  alone 
renders  possil^le  world  commerce. 

97.  Ocean  Navigation.  On  the  sea,  sails  remained  the 
general  motive  power  for  more  than  five  hundred  years  —  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Then  the  greater  speed  and  regularity 
of  steamers  began  to  tell.  The  decline  of  sailing  tonnage  was 
hastened  by  the  Suez  Canal  (1869),  which  lies,  like  the  Panama 
Canal  (19 14),  in  a  region  of  calms.  Recently,  however,  a 
new  type  of  sailing  vessel  has  appeared,  of  large  size,  steel 


DEVELOPMENT  OP    TRANSPURTATION 


75 


built,  and  equipped  with  auxiliary  engines  to  handle  the 
sails  and  cargo  and  sometimes  to  enter  and  leave  port  with- 
out assistance.  (Fig.  35.)  Such  vessels  will  carry  a  larger 
cargo  than  a  steamer  of  equal  size,  with  a  smaller  crew,  little 
expense  for  coal,  and  at  but  slightly  lower  spced.^  In 
voyages  of  5,000  miles  or  over,  sailing  vessels  would  seem  to 
have  a  material  advantage, 
because  so  much  of  the 
space  in  steamers  is  taken 
up  by  coal. 

The  first  ocean  steam- 
ships (Fig.  36)  were  small 
wooden  side-wheelers 
which  depended  more  on 
sails  than  on  steam.  Sea- 
going steamers  to-day  are 
mostly  built  of  Bessemer 
steel,  with  double  bottoms, 
several  water-tight  com- 
partments, and  are  driven 
by  high-pressure  engines, 
which  are  attached  to  screw 
propellers.  "Ocean  grey- 
hounds" now  cross  the 
Atlantic  in  less  than  five 
days,  but  at  enormous  cost 
for  fuel.  Their  practical 
commercial  value,  except 
as  carriers  of  passengers 
and  mail,  is  therefore 
slight.  The  bulk  of  the  world's  commerce  is  borne  by 
another  type  of  vessel,  the  freighter,  broad  of  beam  and 
rather  slow,  but  of   enormous   carrying    capacity    and   very 

'For  example,  the  "Previssen"  carrying  over  5,000  tons  of  freip:ht, 
sailed  from  Hamburg  to  Iquique  (nearly  12  000  miles  by  the  sailing 
route)  in  fifty-seven  days. 


-   ---     »„-^J- 

1                                   '.t 

M 

^H^y^  1 

.^^^^^H 

[^^B^^^ 

CourteBJ  of  n.  H.  Morriion 

Fig.  35.   The  modern  steel  sailing  ship. 


76 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


economical  of  coal.  For  example,  the  "Minnesota,"  a  vessel 
of  this  type  built  for  the  oriental  trade,  will  carry  at  one 
trip  the  ,contents  of  seven  miles  of  freight  ears  (2,000  cars 
or  fifty  trains)  and  at  an  exceedingly  low  cost. 

In  the  face  of 
such  achievements, 
it  is  no  exaggera- 
tion to  say  that  the 
ocean  is  alone  com- 
pletely subdued  to 
the  uses  of  man. 
The  land,  man's 
horne,  still  exacts 
a  heavy  tribute, 
while  the  air  as  yet 
is  little  used  for 
commercial  trans- 
portation purposes. 


The  "Savannah,"  the  first  ship  to  use 
steam  in  crossing  the  ocean  {i8iq). 


Lju 


Copyright.  1914,  by  Enrique  Muller. 

b.     The  "LeviatJian." 
Fig.  36.   The  old  and  the  new  i^i  ocean  steamships. 

98.  How  Transportation  Rates  are  Fixed.  Transportation 
charges  are  fixed,  as  a  rule,  not  according  to  the  cost  of  the 
haul,  but  according  to  the  supposed  value  of  the  service  to 
the  shipper.  In  railway  circles  this  policy  is  called  "putting 
on  what  the  traffic  will  bear";  and  its  object,  from  the  point 


DEVELOPMENT  OF    TRANSPORTATION  77 

of  view  of  the  railway  manager,  is  (in  the  words  of  a  French 
statesman)  "to  pluck  the  goose  so  as  to  secure  the  maximum 
of  feathers  with  the  minimum  of  squawking." 

From  the  economic  view-point,  however,  the  justification  of 
the  value-of-service  principle  lies  in  the  fact  that  heavy  com- 
modities of  low  value,  such  as  coal,  ore,  and  timber,  which 
obviously  are  the  most  expensive  to  haul,  must  be  carried  at 
very  low  rates,  or  they  cannot  be  moved  at  all;  yet  it  is  essen- 
tial to  the  utilization  of  natural  resources  and  the  develop- 
ment of  industry  and  commerce  that  such  commodities  be 
transported  wherever  needed. 

While  value  of  service  is  the  general  principle  govern- 
ing transportation  rates,  it  is  subject  to  many  modifications 
in  practice.  For  example,  there  is  a  high  rate  on  some  goods, 
such  as  agricultural  implements,  because  they  take  up  much 
room.  Again,  the  rate  is  relatively  higher  on  short  than  on 
long  hauls  because,  for  one  thing,  the  expense  of  loading  and 
unloading  is  just  as  great  for  a  short  as  a  long  haul.  Finally, 
the  rates  by  rail  between  certain  districts  are  profoundly  affected 
by  competition,  especially  the  competition  of  water  ways. 

In  the  case  of  the  post,  the  value-of-service  principle  appears 
in  the  higher  rate  paid  on  letters  than  on  printed  matter. 
But  a  flat  (or  unifonn)  rate  is  made  on  all  except  the  heaviest 
class  of  mail  matter  within  a  country,  irrespective  of  the 
distance,  because  the  larger  part  of  the  cost  is  due  to  the  collec- 
tion and  distribution  of  the  mail,  and  consequently  does  not 
vary  with  the  distance. 

For  similar  reasons  it  would  seem  that  a  flat  rate  would  be 
economically  justifiable  on  express,  telegraph,  and  telephone 
traffic,  at  least  within  very  wide  zones.  In  point  of  fact, 
rates  are  commonly  fixed  on  this  basis  in  countries  where 
the  government  operates  these  businesses  as  a  part  of  the 
postal  system. 


VIII— THE  PRINCIPAL  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  COMMERCE 

99.  The  Uses  of  Wild  Animals.  To  savage  man,  wild 
animals  were  the  staff  of  life;  to  civilized  man,  they  are  largely 
a  means  of  recreation.  The  delight  in  hunting  and  fishing, 
felt  by  all  right-minded  boys  and  most  men,  harks  back  to  the 
ages  when  to  be  "a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord"  meant  all 
that  it  means  to-day  to  be  a  captain  of  industry. 

By  reason  of  this  hunting  instinct  in  man,  the  fish  and  game 
of  forested  regions  like  northern  Maine  and  Minnesota  arc  a 
commercial  asset  of  large  value,  drawing  yearly  thousands  of 
visitors. 

From  wild  animals  are  also  obtained  several  important  com- 
modities, especially  furs,  feathers,  and  ivory. 

100.  Furs,  Feathers,  and  Ivory.  Since  the  days  when  the 
inhabitants  of  northern  Europe  were  clad  in  the  skins  of  wild 
beasts,  according  to  the  Roman  writers,  furs  have  been  an 
important  article  of  commerce.  Their  influence  in  opening  up 
new  lands  has  been  very  great.  It  was  fish  that  brought  the 
French  to  Canada,  but  furs  that  drew  them  ever  farther  into 
the  interior  of  the  continent. 

Furs  are  mainly  the  product  of  cold,  forested  regions,  such 
as  northern  Canada  and  Siberia;  though  some  animals,  par- 
ticularly the  muskrat,  mink,  and  skunk,  are  still  found  in 
settled  districts. 

Ornamental  feathers  and  ivory,  on  the  other  hand,  come 
mainly  from  warm  countries,  where  birds  of  bright  plumage 
and  ivory-bearing  animals  such  as  the  elephant  and  hippo- 
potamus are  now  at  home.  Some  fossil  ivory  is  also  obtained 
in  Siberia,  where  the  mammotli  once  abounded. 

101.  The  Harvest  of  the  Sea.      More  valuable,  however, 

than  furs  or  ivory  are  fish,  which  form  the  only  considerable 

food  supply  still  produced  spontaneously  by  nature. 

(78) 


THE    PRINCIPAL    RAW    MATERIALS    OF    COMMERCE 


79 


Fish  abound  in  nearly  all  shallow  waters,  but  are  firmer 
fleshed  in  cold  regions,  where  they  can  also  be  more  readily 
cured  or  marketed  without  spoiling.  The  most  important 
fishing  banks  or  shoals  are  consequently  near  the  continents 
in  high  latitudes,  where  the  fish  feed  or  spawn  at  certain 
seasons.  The  species  of  greatest  commercial  value  are  the 
cod,  herring  (Fig.  37),  and  mackerel  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  the  salmon  in  rivers  tributary  to  the  Pacific.  Important 
also  are  the  lobster  and  several  shellfish,  especially  the  oyster. 


Fig.  37. 


Pursing  a  seine  about  a  school  of  herring 
in  Boston  Harbor. 


By  means  of  refrigeration  fresh  fish  now  reach  the  interior 
of  the  continents.  Cured  fish  (dried,  smoked,  or  pickled)  are 
largely  consumed  in  the  Tropics,  since  they  will  keep  indefi- 
nitely and  are  cheaper  and  less  heating  than  meat.  Salmon 
are  mostly  canned  for  market. 

Other  marine  products  are  whale  oil  and  whalebone,  walrus 
skins  and  seal  skins  from  cold  waters;  pearls,  pearl  and 
tortoise  shells,  coral,  and  sponges  from  tropical  waters. 

102.  Dairy  Products.  Wandering  shepherd  tribes  were  the 
first  to  make  use  of  dairy  products,  employing  as  milch 
animals  sheep,  goats,  and  horses,  as  well  as  cattle.     The  goat 


8o 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


is  still  the  milch  animal  of  hot  countries,  as  the  cow  is  of  cool 
regions.  Roquefort  cheese  is  made  from  the  milk  of  sheep; 
Parmesan  cheese  from  the  milk  of  goats. 

As  a  factor  in  international  commerce,  however,  the  dairy 
industry  depends  mainly  upon  the  cow,  and  consequently 
tends  more  and  more  to  be  localized  in  cool,  well-watered 
regions  having  abundant  pasturage.  (Fig.  38.)  This  localiza- 
tion is  especially  noticeable  where  the  land  is  too  wet  for  grain 
farming,  as  in  Holland;  or  too  sandy,  as  in  Denmark;  or  too 
broken,  as  in  Switzerland;  or  too  valuable,  as  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States  near  great  cities.     Owing  to  steam 


Butter  exports 


Cheese  exports 


Oleomargarine  mfg. 

Data  from  Year  Books  of  Agriculture,  1910-13 

Fig.  38.     Dairy  products  and  substitutes.     Averages  for  three  years,  totals 

{million  pounds):  butter  exports,  6yo;  oleomargarine  made,  62g  {no 

data  in  Thirteenth  Census);  cheese  exports,  520, 

transportation  and  refrigeration,  butter  now  reaches  the 
London  market  in  prime  condition  even  from  New  Zealand, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe. 

103.  Eggs  and  Honey.  Similar  to  the  dairy  business  and 
often  associated  with  it  is  the  keeping  of  bees  and  poultry 
for  their  products.  The  quality  of  honey  seems  to  depend  in 
part  on  the  soil,  which  affects  the  nectar  of  flowers.  Mount 
Hymettos,  near  Athens,  has  been  renowned  for  honey  since 
ancient  times.  The  keeping  of  poultry  for  eggs  has  received 
a  great  impetus  from  the  use  of  cold  storage.  The  poultry 
industry  is  most  profitable  and  therefore  most  important  in 
well-drained  regions,  where  grain  or  other  food  is  aVjundant 
and  cheap,  especially  where  small  farms  prevail. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  COMMERCE  8l 

104.  Meat  Products.  Before  the  days  of  railroads  each 
farmer  kept  a  few  head  of  stock  for  his  own  use.  Steam  has 
now,  to  a  great  extent,  concentrated  the  grazing  industry  in 
regions  too  dry  for  agriculture,  though  the  feeding  industry 
(fattening  stock  for  the  market)  is  largely  carried  on  in  agri- 
cultural districts  producing  forage  crops,  as  in  the  corn  belt 
of  the  United  States.  Grazing  regions  are  found  on  the  dry 
side  of  mountain  ranges,  as  in  Australia  and  South  Africa. 

Swine  are  raised  as  consumers  of  waste  materials  in  many 
parts  of  the  cool  zones.  Thus  in  Denmark,  where  the  principal 
product  is  butter,  the  raising  of  swine  on  the  skim  milk  is 
an  important  by-industry.  Swine  are  also  raised  on  a  large 
scale  in  two  districts,  both  possessing  food  of  a  high  fattening 


Cattle 


Sheep 


Swine 


Data  from  Year  Books  of  Agriculture   1910-13 


Fig.  39.    Live  stock,  averages  for  latest  available  years.    Totals  (in  millions): 
cattle,  448;  sheep,  6ij;  swine,  I4p. 

power:  the  oak  forests  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  where  the 
swine  run  at  large  and  feed  on  acorns,  and  the  United  States, 
where  they  are  fed  on  corn.     (Fig.  39.) 

Refrigerated  and  canned  meats  have  largely  taken  the  place 
(except  in  the  case  of  pork)  of  the  salted,  smoked,  and  sun- 
dried  meats  so  generally  consumed  a  generation  ago. 

105.  Leather  and  Animal  Fibers.  All  the  larger  animals, 
including  the  alligator  and  walrus,  furnish  skins  suitable  for 
leather. 

Men  early  learned  how  to  preserve  skins  from  decay,  either 
by  rubbing  in  oil,  as  the  Indians  did  in  tanning  buckskin,  or 


THE    PRINCIPAL    RAW    MATERIALS    OF    COMMERCE  83 

by  soaking  the  skins  in  a  solution  of  some  plant  containing 
tannic  acid,  such  as  oak  or  hemlock  bark.  Before  the  days  of 
refrigeration,  in  districts  remote  from  markets  like  Argentina, 
cattle  were  commonly  raised  for  their  hides  alone. 

The  principal  animal  fiber  used  in  weaving  cloth  is  wool. 
This  is  obtained  commercially  not  only  from  the  sheep,  but 
also  from  the  Angora  (Fig.  40)  and  the  Cashmere  goat,  from 
some  varieties  of  camels,  and  from  the  alpaca  and  vicuna  of 
the  Andes.  The  finest  wool,  such  as  merino,  comes  as  a  rule 
from  dry  uplands.  Both  sheep  and  goats  flourish  where 
cattle  would  starve.  As  a  result  of  steam  transportation, 
the  industry  of  wool  growing  has  largely  shifted  to  the  semi- 
arid  parts  of  Australia,  Argentina,  South  Africa,  and  the 
United  States. 

The  fur  of  squirrels,  rabbits,  nutria  (an  animal  from  Argen- 
tina resembling  the  beaver),  and  domestic  cats  is  also 
pressed  or  "felted"  into  a  kind  of  cloth  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  hats.  The  felting  quality  is  due  to  saw-like  teeth  on 
each  fiber,  so  small  that  they  can  be  seen  only  through  a 
microscope. 

Next  to  wool,  the  most  important  animal  fiber  is  silk. 
This  is  the  gossamer-like  thread  spun  by  the  silkworm,  a 
caterpillar  that  feeds  on  the  mulberry  tree.  China,  where 
silk  was  first  used,  was  long  known  to  Europe  as  Serica,"the 
Land  of  Silk."  Eastern  Asia  still  furnishes  the  bulk  of  the 
raw  silk.  An  artificial  silk  is  now  made  from  vegetable  matter 
which  is  much  cheaper  and  hardly  to  be  distinguished  in 
appearance  from  the  genuine  article,  though  less  durable. 

106.  How  Plants  Connect  Man  with  the  Earth.  Savage 
man,  living  by  the  chase,  was  indeed  exposed  in  person  to 
all  the  rigors  of  climate.  The  Indian  in  his  wigwam  had  little 
protection  against  storm  or  frost.  Nevertheless,  his  mode 
of  life  was  largely  independent  of  soil  and  climate,  except  as 
these  affected  the  game  which  he  pursued.  The  practice  of 
agriculture,  on  the  other  hand,  at  once  rendered  man  directly 
dependent,  for  the  necessities  of  life,  upon  soil  and  climate. 


84 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


Following   this  mode   of  life,  he  could  live  only  where  his 
food  and  fiber  crops  would  ripen. 

107.  Forest  Products.  The  forest  was  no  doubt  the  origi- 
nal home  of  man,  and  timber  the  first  material  used  for  tools 
and  weapons.  Its  value  has  not  lessened,  though  its  uses 
have  changed  with  the  advance  of  civilization. 

The  temperate  forests  contribute  to  commerce  largely  soft 
woods,  such  as  pine,  fir,  and  spruce,  which  are  at  once  durable 

and  easily  worked, 
besides  turpentine, 
pitch,  and  rosin^ 
obtained  from  the 
same  species. 

Tropical  forests 
yield  cabinet  woods 
of  great  beauty, 
such  as  mahogany 
and  rosewood. 
These  woods  are 
very  costly  because 
scattered  through 
dense  jungles  and 
therefore  difficult 
to  get  out.  Tropi- 
cal forests  also 
produce  numerous 
drugs,  dyestuffs, 
resins,  gums;  and, 
most  important  of  all,  rubber  and  gutta-percha.  (Fig.  41.) 
These  various  substances  occur  in  the  sap  of  many  unrelated 
plants. 

The  rubber  industry,  founded  on  Mackintosh's  invention 
(1820)     of    waterproof    goods,     and    Goodyear 's    discovery 

iRcsin  is  a  general  term  for  sap  products  soluble  in  alcohol  or  turpen- 
tine, but  not  soluble  in  water.  It  therefore  includes  rosin  as  a  special 
variety.  A  gum,  on  the  other  hand,  is  soluble  in  water,  but  not  soluble 
in  alcohol  or  turpentine.     Gum-arabic,  used  in  mucilage,  is  an  example. 


Fig.  41.     Freshly  tapped  gutta-percha  tree,  with 
leaves  spread  to  catch  the  flow. 


THE   PRINCIPAL   RAW  MATERIALS   OF   COMMERCE  85 

(patented  1844)  that  rubber  can  be  hardened  by  sulphur,  has 
received  an  additional  impetus  from  the  use  of  rubber  tires. 
Recently  a  process  has  been  invented  for  making  rubber  from 
starch. 

Gutta-percha  is  indispensable  for  coating  submarine  tele- 
graph cables,  being  resistant  to  the  action  of  salt  water. 

108.  Cultivated  Plants.  Some  species  of  plants,  as  of 
animals,  are  useful  to  man:  these  are  his  friends.  Others 
enter  into  competition  for  the  same  food  or  the  same  soils: 
these  are  his  enemies. 

Competitors  for  the  same  food  are  parasitic  plants,  such 
as  fungi,  and  countless  varieties  of  insects  that  feed  upon 
what  the  fanner  has  planted  for  his  own  use.  Competitors 
for  the  same  soil  are  all  wild  and  useless  plants,  called  weeds, 
which  tend  to  choke  out  the  crops. 

Some  one  has  asked  why  crops  do  not  thrive  untended,  in 
place  of  weeds.  The  answer  is  simple.  By  selecting  seeds 
man  develops  qualities  in  plants  which  suit  his  purpose,  but 
they  are  seldom  qualities  which  fit  the  plant  for  the  natural 
struggle  for  existence.  Crops  do  not  thrive  untended  because 
weeds  are  natural,  while  crops  arc,  in  a  sense,  artificial. 

109.  Fruits  and  Nuts.  In  the  Tropical  and  Subtropical 
zones,  certain  fruits  and  nuts  are  the  chief  support  of  large 
populations;  for  example,  the  mango  and  bread  fruit  in  the 
East  Indies.  Others  also  enter  extensively  into  commerce. 
Such  are  the  date,  fig,  and  cocoanut  (Fig.  42),  all  dried  for 
export;  the  grape,  yielding  raisins  and  wine;  the  olive,  native 
to  the  dry  subtropical  region,  which  is  either  pickled  or  crushed 
for  oil;  the  almond,  chestnut,  pecan,  and  walnut,  which  form 
the  chief  nuts  of  commerce.  Even  fresh  southern  fruits, 
especially  the  banana,  grapefruit,  and  orange,  now  appear 
in  northern  markets  through  the  agency  of  rapid  transpor- 
tation and  cold  storage. 

This  is  no  doubt  the  beginning  of  a  commercial  movement 
by  which  the  fertile  soil  of  tropical  lands,  where  it  is  always 
summer  and  harvest  time  never  ends,  will  be  increasingly  laid 


86 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


under  contribution  to  feed  tlie  colder  and,  in  this  respect, 
less-favored  regions  of  the  earth. 

In  the  Temperate  zones,  the  leading  fruits  are  the  apple, 
which  will  keep  for  months  in  its  natural  condition,  and  the 
plum,  known  when  dried  as  the  prune.  The  processes  of  can- 
ning and  preserving  have  largely  increased  the  commercial 
importance  of  perishable  fruits  like  the  peach  and  pear. 

Cocoanut  Palm 


Trilnk 


Leaves 


Kerpel 


Co 


Oil  CI 


ke 


Stt'.ck- 
fofjd  Eu 


Shell 
Household 


Husk       Fuel  Cabinet  wood 


irlousehola    . 
pra      Dilink      utensils     Coir 


Oil 


In  cool 


Cordage 


Soap  and  candles 
ing 


fiber 


Br  ashes 


Carpets 


Flower 


spathe 


(Voun^)  Food 
House  thatching 


Mats 


Juice 


Palm  [sugar 


Arrack 


Vinegar 
Aliur  Toothaker 

Fig.  42.     The  uses  of  the  cocoar.iit  palm. 

1 10.  Root  and  Pod  Crops.  In  warm  countries  edible  roots 
and  stocks  largely  take  the  place  of  grain.  This  is  the  case, 
for  example,  with  yams  and  sweet  potatoes  in  the  West 
Indies;  taro  in  Hawaii;  the  sago  palm,  the  pith  of  which 
forms  the  sago  of  commerce,  in  the  East  Indies;  and  manioc 
(cassava,  yucca),  which  yields  tapioca,  in  Brazil  and  Central 
Africa. 

Pud  crops  which  are  rich  in  protein  also  serve  as  a  partial 
substitute  for  meat  in  such  countries;  for  example,  chick-peas 
in  Spain  and  North  Africa,  and  soy  beans  in  India. 

In  the  Temperate  zones  the  principal  root  crop  is  the  potato, 
native  to  America,  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  Inca  civili- 
zation in  Peru.     It  will  grow  on  poor  soil,  at  high  altitudes 


THE   PRINCIPAL   RAW   MATERIALS    OF   COMMERCE 


87 


and  latitudes,  maturing  nearer  the  pofe  (70°  40'  in  Norway) 
than  any  cereal.     Next  in  acreage  and  value  is  the  onion. 

Root  crops  are  in  general  too  bulky  to  enter  largely  into 
international  commerce.  Moreover,  the  predominance  of  root 
crops  for  food,  as  in  the  Tropics,  usually  marks  an  inferior  stage 
of  agriculture  and  of  civilization.  Root  crops  are,  however, 
commonly  rotated  with  grain  on  the  same  soil,  where  scien- 
tific farming  prevails. 

III.  The  Cereals.  The  grains  are  mainly  seed-bearing 
grasses.  Barley,  which  Pliny  considered  the  most  ancient 
food  of  man,  has  the  widest  climatic  range  (20°  to  70°  north 


Corn 


Wheat 

JJala  fr 


Oaia 

Year  Books  of  Agriculture,  1912-13 


Fig.  43.     World  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  ai:d  cals.     Averages  for  five  years, 
totals  (million  bushels):  corn,  3,Sio;  wheat,  J.7-'5;  oats,  4,308. 

latitude).  Though  formerly  the  chief  breadstuff  of  the 
Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  it  is  now  niore  commonly 
fed  to  stock.     With  hops,  it  is  also  used  in  brewing  beer. 

The  principal  tropical  grains  are  rice,  grown  mostly  in 
standing  water,  and  millet  {durrah),  which  needs  a  dry  soil. 
Rice  supports  nearly  a  third  of  the  human  race  in  eastern 
Asia;  millet  is  the  leading  cereal  in  the  dry  parts  of  India  and 
Africa. 

The  warm  temperate  grains  are  corn  (maize)  and  winter 
wheat;  the  cool  temperate  grains  are  spring  wheat,  oats, 
and  rye.     (Fig.  43.) 

Com  needs  a  warm,  moist  climate  and  is  consequently 
grown  chiefly  in  regions  of  summer  rains.  It  was  widely  culti- 
vated in  America  before  Columbus,  and  still  has  probably  the 


88 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


largest  acreage  of  any  grain  in  the  New  World.^  It  islmostly 
fed  to  live  stock,  though  com  meal  serves  as  food  for  man, 
and  much  com  is  made  into  starch,  glucose,  molasses,  and 
whisky.     (Fig.  45.) 

Wheat,  of  both  the  winter  and  spring  varieties,  flourishes 
best  in  a  region  of  winter  or  spring  rains  but  warm  and  rather 
dry  summers.  It  is  the  staff  of  life  for  the  white,  as  rice  is 
for  the  yellow,  race  and  enters  more  largely  into  commerce 
than  any  other  cereal.     (Fig.  43.) 

Oats  and  rye  flourish  in  cooler  and  moister  climates,  rye  also 
on  poorer  soil  than  wheat.  Oats  was  apparently  the  original 
breadstuff  of  northern  Europe,  but  now  serves  chiefly  as  horse 


Kyc 


U'v  Potatoes 

Data  from  Year  Books  of  Agriculture,  1U12-13 


Fig.  44.      World  crops  of  rye,  barley,  and  potatoes.      Averages  for  five  years, 
totals  {million  bushels):  rye,  1,753;  barley,  1,458;  potatoes,  5,366. 

feed.  Barley,  maize,  and  oats  are  thus  the  principal  fodder 
grains.  Rye  forms  the  "black  bread"  of  the  peasants  in 
Europe  and,  like  corn,  is  used  in  distilleries.     (Fig.  44.) 

Buckwheat,  a  relative  of  our  common  dock  or  sorrel,  will 
grow  on  even  more  sandy  soil,  and  in  a  shorter  season,  than 
rye.  Hence  it  is  a  favorite  crop  in  the  mountains,  and  a  "catch 
crop"  elsewhere,  being  sown  after  some  other  crop  has  failed. 

112.  Condiments.  In  former  times,  when  nearly  all  meats 
were  dried  or  salted.  East  India  spices^  were  in  great  demand 

^Water  rice  (Zizania  aqtiatica)  was  another  important  food  of  the 
Indians.  Analysis  shows  it  to  be  perhaps  the  most  perfect  cereal,  but 
no  practical  methods  of  cultivation  have  been  as  yet  devised. 

^Chiefly  black  pepper,  cloves,  nutmegs,  and  cinnamon.  Pimento,  red 
pepper,  and  vanilla  were  native  to  America.  Mustard,  a  temperate 
country  plant,  is  widely  used,  yet  figures  little  in  foreign  trade. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  RAW  MATERIALS  OF  COMMERCE 


89 


owing* to  their  biting,  aromatic  qualities.  During  the  Middle 
Ages,  indeed,  condiments  were  more  important  commercially 
than  foodstuffs.  Pepper  and  vanilla  are  now  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  spices  in  commerce. 

During  the  last  few  centuries,  sugar,  previously  unknown, 
has  become  the  leading  condiment.  It  now  ranks  with  wheat 
and  cotton  as  a  world  commodity.  The  principal  sources  of 
sugar  are  the  sugar  cane  and  sugar  beet.  India  is  the  largest 
producer  of  cane  sugar,  though  Cuban  sugar  is  more  important 
commercially.     Germany  has  led  in  beet  sugar.     (Fig.  278.) 

Corn  Plant  (Maize) 


I 


Ekr 


Brea;kfa 


■n    hJiI 


Cob 


Sta(lk 


Packing  in  war 


So'ap 


jbber  substitute 


LaujnJry 


Syr  up 


Dext^ii 


Data  from  Lorn  Prtxluota  Mfg.  Cy. 

Fig.  45.     Industrial  uses  of  the  corn  plant. 

w  113.  Stimulants.  Several  plants  which  stimulate  the  nerv- 
ous system  have  also  become  of  great  commercial  importance 
in  modern  times.  Such  are  coffee,  native  to  the  mountains  of 
vAbyssinia,  and  tea,  apparently  first  used  in  China.  Curi- 
'  ously  enough,  cocoa  (or  cacao),  an  American  plant  having  a 
similar  stimulating  effect,  became  known  in  Europe  a  century 
before  either  tea  or  coffee,  both  Old  World  products.  Choco- 
late is  a  preparation  of  cocoa. 

Another  plant  native  to  America,  though  now  grown  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  is  tobacco.  In  eastern  Asia  opium  has  been 
commonly  smoked  in  place  of  tobacco.  There  are  in  addition 
many  narcotic  plants  employed   only   in   certain  countries. 


go 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


An  artificial  stimulant  is  alcohol,  produced  either  by  fer- 
mentation, as  in  wine,  cider,  and  beer;  or  by  distillation,  as 
in  rum,  brandy,  and  whisky.  Any  fruit  or  grain,  besides 
potatoes,  molasses,  and  honey,  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

114.  Fiber  Crops.  Next  to  food,  the  most  imperative 
need  of  man  is  clothing.  Flax  (linen)  is  found  i-n  prehistoric 
lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland,  and  in  Egyptian  tombs  that 
antedate  the  pyramids.  It  is,  however,  too  expensive  for 
common  use,  because  the  fiber  inust  be  separated  from  the 
stalk  by  hand. 

For  this  reason  cotton  has  become,  since  the  invention  of 
the  cotton  gin  (1793),  the  leading  vegetable  fiber.  (Fig.  46.) 
The  trade  in  cotton  and  cotton  manufactures  is  perhaps  the 


54% 


14% 


14% 


10%     7%  1% 


Cotton 

9,787  million  pounds 

Wool 

2,617.6 

Jute 

2,524 

Flax 

1,846 

i  so 

48%                                                     25%                         13% 

6%     5%  3% 

Cotton 

925  million  dollars 

Wool 

471 

Silk 

255 

^2 

© 

"3 

>-> 

1 

r>ata  from  Censua  Bulletin,  100 

Fig.  46.     Production  and  vahie  of  leading  textile  fibers. 

most  important  branch  of  international  commerce.  Cotton 
will  indeed  grow  in  a  variety  of  climates,  but  produces  the 
finest  fiber  in  a  warm  climate  near  salt  water.  Abundant 
moisture  is  also  necessary.  The  principal  cotton-growing 
countries  are  the  United  States,  India,  and  Egypt.     (Fig.  47.) 

There  are  four  fibers  of  commercial  importance  for  bags 
and  cordage.  Hemp  was  originally  in  sole  possession  of  the 
market ;  but  as  no  satisfactory  gin  has  been  invented  to  extract 
the  fiber,  hemp  has  been  largely  superseded,  for  bags,  by 
jute  grown  in  India  where  labor  is  cheap;  and  for  cordage, 
by  sisal  Qicncqiien)  from  Mexico.  For  heavy  ropes,  however, 
Manila  "hemp"  (abaca)  is  indispensable. 

115.  The  Influence  of  Minerals.  Civilized  man  depends  for 
the  advantages  he  enjoys  over  his  barbarous  ancestors  chiefly 


THE  PRINCIPAL   RAW  MATERIALS  OF  COMMERCE 


91 


on  the  mineral  kingdom.  Take  away  the  minerals  and  all 
modem  manufactures  would  become  impossible,  and  com- 
merce, except  in  the  original  form  of  barter  from  tribe  to  tribe, 
would  speedily  disappear  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 

In  all  ages  important  mineral  deposits  have  consequently 
attracted  population:  as  shown  by  Stonehenge,  over  the  flint 
beds  which  once  furnished  tools  and  weapons  for  England; 
and  by  many  mining  towns  to-day.     Butte,  Mont.,  a  copper 

Cotton  Plant 


CMth  Coijdag^ 


ondage 


Smokeless  powder 


Cotton  batting 


Cellilose 


Artificial  silk 


Linier 


Carpets       Fei 


Rope  i^nd  twine         Cell|ulose 


Fajper  Ft 


per        Cake  apd  meal 


ilizer      Stock 


Soap 


Winter  y  ellow  oil 


Summer  yellow  oil 


de  oil 


Soap  s 


lock 


Salald  oi! 


Lard  coijipound 


JlRta  frgm  Census,  li»io,  and  Tuulliake 


Fig.  47.     Industrial  uses  of  the  cotton  plant. 

city,  and  Johannesburg,  South  Africa,  a  city  built  on  gold, 
are  typical  examples. 

116.  Structural  Materials.  Stone,  copper,  and  iron  have 
successively  formed  the  mechanical  basis  of  civilization,  and 
have  given  their  names  to  the  ages  of  Stone,  Bronze,  and  Iron. 

Stone,  which  was  no  doubt  the  first,  is  still  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  mineral  resources  used  by  man.  It  now 
serves  chiefly  for  buildings  and  for  surfacing  highways. 

Where  neither  timber  nor  stone  was  available,  a  serious 
difficulty  arose.     Nomads  could  live  in  tents;  but  what  was 


92  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

civilized  man  to  do?  This  problem  was  solved  by  the  inven- 
tion of  brick,  which  alone  made  possible  the  palaces,  the 
cities,  and  the  gigantic  walls  of  ancient  Mesopotamia. ^  In 
modem  times,  especially  in  the  United  States,  brick  is  coming 
into  ever  wider  use  as  our  forest  resources  dwindle.  Tile  and 
pottery,  like  brick,  are  also  made  chiefly  of  clay. 

Another  structural  material  invented  in  prehistoric  times  was 
glass,  doubtless  made  at  first  by  melting  together  sand  and 
salt  from  the  seashore.  Without  glass  or  coal,  it  is  diffl- 
cult  to  see  how  civilization  could  exist  at  all  in  high  latitudes. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  striking  development 
of  the  cement  industry.  Portland  cement,  made  usually  of 
limestone  and  clay  heated  to  about  3,000°  F.,  has  the  invaluable 
quality  of  setting  or  hardening  under  water.  Without  this 
material,  more  durable  than  natural  rock,  railroad  tunnels, 
subways,  and  concrete  construction  generally  would  present 
great,  if  not  insuperable,  difficulties. 

Cement  and  steel  are  indeed  the  mechanical  bases  of  modern 
industry  and  transportation. 

117.  Mineral  Fertilizers.  Experience  shows  that  there  are 
three  elements  which  tend  to  become  exhausted  in  soils  con- 
tinuously under  cultivation,  yet  are  absolutely  necessary  to 
crop  production.  These  elements  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus. 
and  potassium.  The  problem  of  feeding  the  ever-growing 
population  of  the  world,  therefore,  largely  resolves  itself  into  the 
problem  of  restoring  these  elements  to  the  soil  as  fast  as  needed. 
For  this  purpose,  certain  mineral  fertilizers  are  of  the  utmost 
value. 

Nitrogen  occurs  abundantly  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda 
in  the  arid  region  of  northern  Chile.  It  is  also  possible  to 
obtain  a  usable  form  of  nitrate  {ammonium  sulphate)  as  a  by- 
product from  coke  ovens,  and  even  to  manufacture  artificial 
nitrates,  though  these  processes  are  still  relatively  expensive. 2 

'R.  von  Ihering,  The  Evolution  of  iJie  Aryan. 

-Nitrate  of  lime,  by  the  use  of  a  powerful  electric  current;  and 
calcium  cyanamide,  by  passing  air  over  hot  calcium  carbide.  The 
source  of  the  nitrogen  in  both  cases  is  the  air. 


THE    PRINCIPAL    RAW    MATERIALS    OF    COMMERCE  93 

Nitrogen  can  likewise  be  restored  to  the  soil  by  planting 
clover  or  other  legumes  which  have  the  power  (through  bac- 
teria inhabiting  their  roots)  of  getting  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

Phosphorus  is  obtained  from  phosphate-rock  deposits  in 
various  regions,  notably  the  South ;  and  also  from  the  slag  of 
steel  mills  using  the  basic  process. 

Potassium,  or  potash,  occurs  in  great  deposits  near 
Stassfurt,  Germany,     It  is  also  a  constituent  of  wood  ashes. 

ii8.  Copper.  In  Homeric  Greece  the  leading  material  for 
tools  and  weapons  was  copper  alloyed  with  tin  to  form  a 
hard  and  tenacious  bronze. 

In  modern  times  copper  is  also  alloyed  with  zinc  to  form 
brass,  and  with  aluminum  and  manganese  to  form  other  kinds 
of  bronze.  Manganese  bronze,  being  tough  and  enduring,  is 
employed  for  steamship  propellers.  Copper  has,  however,  been 
restored  to  the  rank  of  a  great  industrial  metal,  second  only 
to  iron,  mainly  through  the  fact  that  it  is  one  of  the  best 
conductors  of  electricity. 

119.  Iron  and  Steel.  Iron  was  difficult  to  master  on 
account  of  its  high  fusing  point  (about  2,790°  F.).  But  iron, 
with  its  derivative,  steel,  is  the  basis  of  all  modem  industries; 
for  no  other  metal  is  so  well  adapted  to  fine  tools  or  power 
machinery  for  either  manufacturing  or  transportation.  The 
production  of  iron  and  steel  is,  therefore,  generally  taken  as  an 
index  of  the  relative  industrial  development  of  nations.  Cast 
iron  contains  up  to  5  per  cent  of  carbon,  besides  other  impuri- 
ties; it  is  hard  but  brittle.  Steel  is  of  various  grades,  varying 
as  to  its  carbon  content  from  .3  to  2.0  per  cent;  it  is  in  general 
hard  and  also  tough.  Wrought  iron  contains  practically 
no  carbon,  and  is  malleable  but  soft. 

A  modern  blast  furnace  consists  of  a  high  stack,  through 
which  hot  air  (1,400°-!, 650°  F.)  is  constantly  driven  from 
below,  while  from  above  automatic  cars  dump  in  ore,  coke, 
and  limestone — the  stone  to  promote  fusion.  In  place  of 
coke,  natural  gas,  petroleum,  or  electricity  may  be  employed. 
The  molten  iron  runs  into  cups  moving  on  an  endless  chain, 


94 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


a.     Molten  metal  pouring  into  cups  on 
endless  chain. 


Dumping  cooled  iron  automatically 
into  waiting  cars. 
Fig.  48.     Modern  method  of  handling 
pig  iron. 


or  into  trenches  on  the 
sand  floor,  forming 
"pig"  iron  (Fig.  48) ;  or 
is  carried  directly  to 
the  steel  mill  to  avoid 
remelting. 

The  removal  of  the 
carbon  necessary  to 
transform  iron  into 
steel  may  be  accom- 
plished either  by  rak- 
ing or  "puddling"  in  an 
open-hearth  furnace, 
or  by  driving  a  blast  of 
air  through  the  molten 
metal  (Bessemer  proc- 
ess). In  either  case, 
the  carbon  is  burned 
out  by  coming  in  con- 
tact with  air.  If  phos- 
phorus is  present,  it  is 
absorbed  by  lime  (basic 
process).  To  toughen 
the  steel,  a  little  man- 
ganese is  added;  to 
make  it  very  tenacious 
it  is  alloyed  with  nickel, 
chromium,  or  tungsten. 
Thus,  nickel  steel  is 
used  for  steel  rails  on 
curves,  high-power 
rifles,  and  armor  plate 
on  war  ships ;  chromium 
steel  for  burglar-proof 
safes  and  for  armor- 
piercing  projectiles. 


THE   PRINCIPAL   RAW   MATERIALS    OP   COMMERCE  95 

120.  Lead,  Zinc,  and  Tin.  Lead  and  zinc  are  frequently 
associated  in  nature,  and  both  form  compounds  used  in  paints. 
Metallic  lead  is  employed  for  water  pipes,  since  it  is  not  corroded 
by  water;  also  for  bullets,  and  in  various  alloys  such  as  type 
metal.  Metallic  zinc  enters  into  brass,  is  one  element  in  elec- 
tric batteries,  and  serves  to  protect  iron  from  rust. 

Tin,  being  highly  malleable  and  not  easily  corroded,  is  also 
used  as  a  coating  on  iron,  forming  tin  plate.  It  has  become 
important  through  the  increased  use  of  canned  foods. 

121.  Precious  Metals  and  Stones.  Gold  and  silver,  also 
various  stones  siich  as  the  ruby  and  diamond,  early  attracted 
attention  by  their  color  and  luster.  These  were  consequently 
used  as  ornaments  and  came,  through  human  love  of  display, 
to  command  fabulous  prices.  For  this  reason  they  were  called 
"precious."  Most  of  the  silver  and  much  of  the  gold  mined 
are  still  consumed  in  the  arts. 

Gold  is  frequently  found  free  in  nature,  that  is,  not  com- 
bined with  other  substances.  It  is  either  washed  from  river 
gravels  or  obtained  from  quartz  veins,  by  quarrying  and 
crushing  the  rock.     Quartz  mines  now  yield  more  than  gravels. 

Silver  usually  occurs  in  combination  with  other  elements, 
especially  lead  and  copper,  yet  it  is  more  cheaply  mined  than 
gold.  .  Owing  to  the  increasing  production  of  silver  since  1870, 
its  value,  compared  to  gold,  has  declined  more  than  one-half. 

The  output  of  gold  has  also  increased  greatly  since  1897, 
Thus  its  value  has  fallen,  precisely  as  the  price  of  wheat  does 
after  abundant  harvests.  In  the  case  of  gold,  which  fonns 
the  standard  money  metal,  the  fall  in  value  is  reflected  in  the 
advancing  price  of  most  other  commodities. 

122.  Mineral  Fuels.  The  ancient  Persian  Fire  Worshipers 
made  pilgrimages  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  columns  of  flame 
issued  from  the  earth.  It  remained  for  Americans  to  put 
natural  gas  to  more  practical  uses  (182 1).  It  is  thought  to 
have  been  driven  oflE  by  heat  and  pressiu^e  from  petroleiim  or 
coal,  and  gives  an  intense  heat. 

Petroleimi  or  rock  oil  was  first  obtained  by  boring,  in  the 


96 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


United  States  (1859);  this  country  produces  about  two-thirds 
the  world's  output.  The  crude  oil  is  an  efficient  fuel;  when  re- 
fined it  yields  a  series  of  valuable  products.  (Fig.  49.)  Gaso- 
line serves  as  fuel  for  internal  combustion  engines,  benzine  as  a 
solvent  of  rubber,  and  kerosene  for  lighting  purposes.  The 
heavier  residuum  yields  valuable  lubricating  oils,  vaseline  used 
in  ointments,  and  either  paraffin  for  candles  or  asphaltum. 


Data  furnished  by  Standard  Oil  Co. 

Fig.  49.     Industrial  products  of  petroleum. 

Coal  is  vegetable  matter  buried  under  marine  deposits  and 
gradually  transformed  by  heat  and  pressure.  It  varies  from 
the  hard  or  anthracite  coal,  which  runs  from  90  to  95  per  cent 
pure  carbon,  down  through  various  grades  of  bituminous  or 
soft  coal  to  the  lignite  or  brown  coal,  which  may  not  have 
over  40  per  cent  carbon,  and  is,  in  fact,  only  peat  slightly 
altered.  Coke,  a  sort  of  artificial  anthracite,  is  made  from  soft 
coal  by  partial  combustion  in  an  "oven"  nearly  closed  to  the  air. 
Coal  tar,  a  by-product  of  coke  making,  is  the  source  not  only 
of  aniline  dyes,  but  also  of  perfumes  and  an  almost  endless 
series  of  chemicals  and  drugs.     (Fig.  50.) 


THE  PRINCIPAL  RAW  MATERIALS   OP  COMMERCE 


97 


Coal  fields  draw  to  their  neighborhood  nearly  all  kinds  of 
manufactures;  consequently,  while  the  production  of  iron  is 
a  measure  of  the  actual  industrial  development  of  a  nation, 
its  possible  development  is  largely  measured,  in  so  far  as  it 
depends  upon  nature,  by  the  available  supply  of  coal.     (Fig.  51.) 

Coal,  moreover,  alone  renders  commerce  possible  as  con- 
ducted to-day.     We  are  carried  with  the  speed  of  the  wind 


Coal  Distillation 


G^ 


Ammon 


'     Fuel     ' 

Light 

Sulphate 

of  calcium 


iapal  liquc 


Ammonia 
Ammonium  sulphate 


Coal  tar 


>lke 


Carbolic  and|creosote  oils  Anthracjene  oils 


Light  oils 


Ammonia 
Naphtha 
Benzene 
Toluene 
Oil  of  mirbane 
Perfumes 
Flavors 
Saccharine 

Benzole 

Aniline  dyes 

Pyridine 


Phenols 
Carbolic  acid 
Salicylic  acid 
Naphthalene 

Creosote 

Insecticides 

Lubricating  oils 

Burning  oils 


Coal  tar  colors 


Pitch 


Roofing 
Fuel 

Varnish 
for  metals 
Lampblack 


Aftei  ToothakR 


Fig.   50.     Industrial  products  of  coal  distillation. 

over  land  and  sea  because  we  have  harnessed  to  our  service 
the  power  of  the  sun,  stored  up  through  millions  of  years  in 


43% 

31% 

7056 

7% 

9% 

United  States 
280  thousand  square  miles 

China 

200 

Canada 
C5 

ft 

p 

All 

others 

59'( 

Data  from  Chisbolm,  Handbook 

Fig.  51.     Estimated  coal  fields  of  the  world. 

the  recesses  of  the  earth.     Coal  is  king  to-day,  though  elec- 
tricity may  be  king  to-morrow. 


PART  11 
CONTINENTS  AND   COUNTRIES 

IX— THE  MAKING  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

123.  The  Position  of  North  America.  North  America  fronts 
Europe  across  a  relatively  narrow  ocean.  (Fig.  14.)  This  has 
been  well  called  the  most  important  geographic  fact  relating 
to  the  New  World.  Had  America  been  as  near  to  temperate 
Asia  as  it  is  to  Europe,  it  would  doubtless  have  been  peopled 
by  Japanese  or  Chinese  long  before  the  time  of  Columbus. 
And  had  America  been  as  far  from  Europe  as  it  is  from 
Asia  it  could  not  have  been  so  readily  colonized  by  Euro- 
peans, nor  could  the  colonies,  or  the  United  States,  isolated 
from  European  influence,  have  made  such  rapid  progress. 

124.  Coast  Line  and  Surface  of  Temperate  North  America. 
The  three  physical  foundations  of  material  greatness  are 
wealth  of  territory,  wealth  of  minerals,  and  wealth  of  sea 
coast:  the  first  two  giving  power  of  production,  the  third 
facilitating  the  distribution  of  products.  In  all  three  respects, 
temperate   North   America   is   exceptionally   well   endowed. 

In  the  proportion  of  coast  line  to  area,  North  America 
ranks  next  to  Europe.  Moreover,  it  has  five  great  "unsalted 
seas"  connected  with  one  another  and  with  the  ocean — a 
feature  found  in  no  other  continent. 

The  dominant  surface  feattu-es  are  two  extensive  plains, 
the  Coastal  Plain  bordering  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Central  Plain 
extending  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  southward,  the  two  merging 
along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  two  great  highland  areas,  the 
Appalachian  and  the  Cordilleran,  both  running  in  a  general 
north-and-south   direction,   roughly   parallel   to   the   oceans. 

(Fig.  53.) 

These  stuface  features  largely  control  the  distribution  of 

(98) 


THE  MAKING  OF   THE   UNITED  STATES 


99 


natural  resources,  the  routes  of  transportation,  and  the  climate 
throughout  the  continent.  As  a  result,  they  naturally  deter- 
mine in  great  part  the  location  of  industries  and  therefore 
the  distribution  of  population.     (Figs.  55  and  58.) 

38% 38% 75%      9% 

By  altitude . 


By  drainage  basins. 


By  physiographic  regions. 


Below  H^  feet 

5()0  to  1,000  feet 

1,000  to 

1,500 

feet 

1-1 

32% 

63%                             5% 

Atlantic  Slope 

Lfike  and  Gulf  Basins 

;  S. 

13%          15%        9% 

14%                           44%                    5% 

New 
Kngland 

Coastal 
Plain 

Highland 

Interior  Plain 

it 

as 

a.  J3 

Data  from  Cenaua  Bulletin  1 


Fig.  55.    Relation  of  physiography  to  population  in  the  United  States. 

125.    The   Coastal  Plain  and   the  Appalachian  Highland. 

The  Coastal  Plain,  rising  gently  from  the  Atlantic,  is  bordered 
toward  the  west  by  a  hilly  or  Piedmont  region  extending  to 
the  foot  of  the  mountains. 

The  Appalachian  Highland,  averaging  perhaps  200  miles  in 
width,, comprises  three  distinct  divisions:  the  eastern  range, 
known  in  Virginia  as  the  Blue  Ridge;  the  Great  Valley,  forty 
to  sixty  miles  wide  and  extending  from  the  St.  Lawrence  well 
into  Alabama;  and  fronting  this  valley  on  the  west  (in  places 
as  a  clifE  1,000  feet  high),  the  rugged  Catskill-AUegheny- 
Cumberland  Plateau. 

The  Great  Valley,  formed  in  a  belt  of  weak  and  easily- 
eroded  rocks,  is  occupied  in  part  by  Lake  Champlain,  and  the 
upper  courses  of  the  Hudson,  Delaware,  Susquehanna,  Poto- 
mac, and  James  rivers,  which  being  older  than  the  mountains 
have  kept  their  channels  open  through  the  slowly  rising  east- 
em  range.  Because  of  these  water  gaps,  the  northern  portion 
of  the  Great  Valley  is  attached  to  the  seaboard  states ;  while 
south  of  Virginia,  where  the  eastern  range  carries  the  principal 
water  parting,  the  Great  Valley  is  part  of  Tennessee.     These 


100  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

water  gaps,  moreover,  opening  natural  transportation  routes 
across  the  mountains,  furnished  the  early  routes  of  migration 
as  they  still  do  of  commerce. 

As  a  whole,  the  Appalachian  Highland  is  much  lower  and 
less  continuous  than  the  Cordilleran.  It  is,  in  fact,  entirely 
cut  through  by  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Hudson-Mohawk 
valleys,  which  consequently  form,  together  with  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  three  natural  gateways  to  the  continent.     (Fig.  54.) 

For  this  reason,  and  also  because  of  the  wide  eastern  Coastal 
Plain,  North  America  commercially  faces  the  Atlantic. 

126.  The  Central  Plain.  The  great  Central  Plain  is  for 
the  most  part  of  very  gentle  slope,  though  it  does  contain  sev- 
eral minor  uplands.  The  three  of  most  importance  are  the 
Lake  Superior  uplands,  the  Ozarks,  and  the  Black  Hills. 

This  plain  is  moreover  traversed  by  many  large  navigable 
rivers;  while  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  Hudson 
Bay  in  effect  carry  the  Atlantic,  to  which  they  are  tributary, 
into  the  very  heart  of  the  continent.  In  addition  to  wide 
expanse  of  fertile  soil,  and  to  wealth  of  minerals  in  its  upland 
districts,  the  Central  Plain  thus  has  unusual  natural  facilities 
for  commerce. 

Portions  of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  and  most  of  the  region  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River  and  Lake  Winnipeg,  were  treeless 
when  the  white  man  came.  These  are  the  natural  prairies. 
(Fig.  60.)  The  western  portion  of  the  treeless  belt,  begin- 
ning at  the  line  of  2,000  feet  elevation,  approximately  along 
the  1 00th  meridian  and  rising  to  4,000  or  5,000  feet  near  the 
Rockies,  is  known  as  the  Great  Plains.  (Fig.  54.)  Here  the 
rivers,  owing  to  the  greater  elevation,  have  cut  deeper  valleys, 
causing  a  more  rolling  and  broken  surface. 

127.  The  Cordilleran  Highland.  The  Cordilleran  or  West- 
ern Highland  comprises  five  distinct  divisions.  The  Rocky 
Mountains,  carrying  the  Continental  Divide,  present  a  prac- 
tically unbroken  rampart  toward  the  east;  though  a  tongue  of 
the  plains  in  Wyoming,  which  determined  the  course  of  the 
Union  Pacific  Railway,  does  penetrate  some  distance  into  the 


THE    MAKING    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


mountains.  Beyond  the  Rockies  lies  a  lofty  plateau  trav- 
ersed by  numerous  lesser  ranges.  It  is  drained  in  part  by 
the  Colorado,  Columbia,  Fraser,  and  Yukon  rivers,  but  also 
includes  the  Great  Basin  in  Utah  and  Nevada,  having  no 
outlet  to  the  sea.  Beyond  this  plateau  on  the  west  rises  the 
snow-capped  Sierra  Nevada-Cascade  Range.  Unlike  the 
Rockies,  this  range  is  cut  by  several  water  gaps,  notably 
those  of  the  Columbia  and  Fraser  rivers.  Beyond  this  range 
again,  upon  the  Pacific  slope,  lie  several  broad  and  highly 
fertile  valleys,  the  San  Joaquin-Sacramento  in  California,  the 


hothervis  for  'January -^^^^ 
Isotherms  for  July         ^->»» 


Fig.  56.     Temperature  belts  in  the  United  States  for  July  and  January. 

Willamette  in  Oregon,  and  the  valley  surrounding  Puget 
Sound.  Finally,  beyond  these  valleys  are  the  Coast  Ranges, 
which  descend  abruptly  to  the  Pacific,  leaving  little  room 
for  a  coastal  plain  at  their  base. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Cordilleran  Highland  is  broken  by 
no  water  way,  and  its  lowest  pass  is  about  a  mile  above 
sea  level.  It  consequently  opposes  immeasurably  greater 
obstacles  to  commerce  than  do  the  Appalachians. 

128.  The  Climate  of  Temperate  North  America.  North 
America  is  broadest  in  the  Temperate  and  narrowest  in  the 


102  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Tropical  zone.  Nearly  all  of  it  thus  has  a  temperate  climate 
suitable  for  the  white  race. 

Moreover,  temperate  North  America,  though  divided  by 
the  accident  of  history  between  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  is  singularly  well  fitted  by  nature  to  be  the  home  of 
one  great  people;  for,  more  than  any  other  continent,  it  is  a 
geographic  unit.  In  general,  east  and  west  mountain  ranges 
are  temperature  barriers,  while  north  and  south  ranges  which 
stand  across  the  paths  of  the  prevailing  winds,  are  rainfall 
barriers.  Owing  to  the  north-and-south  trend  of  the  moun- 
tains in  North  America,  there  is  no  abrupt  change  in  tem- 
perature anywhere  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Hudson 
Bay.  The  United  States  never  could  have  come  into  existence 
if  the  Rocky  Mountains  ran  east  and  west,  in  latitude  35° 
or  40°,  bearing  tropical  jungles  on  their  southern,  and  frigid 
deserts  on  their  northern,  slopes  like  the  Himalayas. 

From  east  to  west,  however,  the  temperature  changes  are 
more  abrupt.  The  Atlantic  slope,  especially  in  New  England 
and  eastern  Canada,  being  exposed  to  winds  both  from  the  land 
and  the  sea,  has  a  very  variable  climate;  the  great  interior 
plain  is  subject  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  like  Siberia  and 
Russia;  while  the  Pacific  coast,  where  westerly  winds  and 
ocean  currents  prevail,  has  a  mild,  even  climate  like  western 
Europe.    (Fig.  56.) 

The  rainfall  likewise  varies  from  east  to  west,  being  heavy  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts,  lighter  in  the  interior  (which 
depends  largely  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Great  Lakes  for 
moisture),  and  heavy  again  on  the  northern  Pacific  slope. 
Between  the  looth  meridian  and  the  Sierra  Nevada-Cascade 
Range,  the  rainfall  is  in  most  parts  insufficient  for  the 
type  of  agriculture  found  in  humid  regions.  The  continent 
thus  has,  as  the  French  say,  "the  defects  of  its  qualities;" 
since  the  north-and-south  trend  of  the  mountains,  which 
tends  to  equalize  the  temperature  over  wide  areas,  at  the 
same  time  checks  the  moisture-laden  west  winds  and  dooms 
half  of  the  continent  to  a  scanty  rainfall.  ■  (Fig.  57.) 


THE  MAKING  OF    THE    UNITED  STATES 


103 


129.  The  American  People.  Providence  winnowed  from 
four  nations  the  seed  wherewith  to  plant  America.  This  was 
the  faith  of  our  fathers;  and  certain  it  is  that  the  families 
driven  to  America  in  colonial  times  by  religious  and  political 
strife  at  home,  were  of  exceptional  character  and  intelligence. 
Some  of  the  early  English  colonists  indeed  sought  sudden 
riches  as  eagerly  as  the  Spaniards  had  done ;  but  being  forced 
to  till  the  soil  in  the  absence  of  gold  and  of  furs  sufficient  to 
maintain  them,  they  founded  a  stable  agricultural  society. 


Data  fr,.in  lieiir 


Fig.  57.    Mean  anmial  rainfall  in  the  United  States. 

The  English  settlers,  occupying  rich  farming  districts, 
naturally  increased  rapidly  in  numbers  and  resources.  This 
was  the  decisive  fact  in  the  long  duel  with  France  for  North 
America. 

The  practice  of  agriculture  also  tended  to  preserve  the  race 
integrity  of  the  English,  for  the  hunting  Indians  could  not 
be  made  into  farm  hands,  nor  could  they  long  remain  friends 
with  those  who,  to  make  farms,  cut  down  the  forests  and  drove 
away  the  game.  This  hostility  checked  intermarriage  and 
saved  the  English  colonies  from  the  fate  of  Spanish  America. 
Finally,  through  immigration  subsequent  to  the  Revolution, 


104 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


all  the  strong  races  of  Europe,  especially  of  northern  and 
western  Europe,  have  helped  to  build  the  American  nation. 

The  present  distribution  of  population  in  the  United  States 
(Fig.  58)  illustrates  in  a  striking  manner  how  largely  man  is 
controlled  by  nature.     (Figs.  54  and  57.) 

130.  Adaptation  to  Environment.  There  has  been  much 
loose  thinking  and  writing  about  the  "conquest  of  nature," 
"triumphing  over  nature,"  and  so  forth.  The  fact  is  that 
man  can  make  use  of  natural  forces,  such  as  steam  or  elec- 


After  Thirteenth  Ceus 


Fig.  58.     The  density  of  population  per  square  mile. 

tricity,  only  on  one  condition — that  of  implicit  obedience  to 
natural  laws.  In  the  words  of  Lord  Bacon,  "Nature  is  con- 
quered only  by  obeying  her."^  In  like  manner  man  can 
prosper  in  any  part  of  the  world  only  by  adapting  his  mode  of 
life  to  the  resources  which  nature  places  at  his  disposal.  No- 
where is  this  dependence  on  natural  environment  more  striking 
than  in  the  early  history  of  the  United  States. 

The  first  colonists  were  saved  from  actual  starvation,  until 
their  European  grains  became  acclimated,  only  by  planting 
maize,  which  they  obtained  from  the  Indians.    Their  method 

^Natura  non  vincittir  nisi  parendo. 


THE   MAKING   OF    THE    UNITED   STATBH  IO5 

of  cultivation,  it  may  be  added,  was  not  much  more  elabo- 
rate than  that  of  the  Indian  squaws,  who  used  to  make  a 
hole  in  the  ground  with  a  piece  of  wood  hardened  in  the  fire, 
drop  in  the  seed,  and  scrape  the  dirt  over  it  with  their  toes. 

Maize,  indeed,  growing  readily  in  the  forest  clearings  made 
by  deadening  the  trees,  and  maturing  in  little  over  three 
months,  certainly  hastened  by  generations  the  occupation  of 
America  by  the  white  race.  Moreover,  it  remained  the  chief 
breadstuff  in  the  United  States  until  far  into  the  nineteenth 
century. 

131.  Northern  and  Southern  T3rpes  of  Agriculture.  Ii.  the 
northern  colonies  men  sought  in  vain  for  crops  which  could 
be  sold  abroad,  since  there  was  at  that  time  no  demand  in 
Europe  for  grain.  They  were  consequently  forced  to  adopt  a 
self-sufhcing  type  of  agriculture,  aiming  merely  to  supply 
their  own  wants.  This  self-sufficing  agriculture  produced  a 
system  of  small  farms  worked  by  their  owners,  and  conse- 
quently a  democratic  type  of  society.  It  moreover  spread 
westAvard  as  the  frontier  advanced,  and  dominated  the  North 
until  the  railway,  the  reaper,  and  the  growth  of  manufacturing 
cities  in  the  East  and  in  Europe  made  possible  the  cultiva- 
tion of  wheat  for  the  market. 

In  Virginia  and  the  more  southern  colonies,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  soil  and  climate  permitted  the  growth  of  staple 
crops — tobacco,  rice,  indigo,  sugar  cane,  cotton — for  which 
there  was  a  good  market  abroad.  The  settlers  consequently 
developed  a  commercial  type  of  agriculture,  demanding 
abundance  of  cheap  labor.  This  demand  was  met  at  first  by 
the  importation  of  contract  labor  (indentured  white  servants), 
and  later  of  African  slaves.  Thus  arose  a  distinct  type  of 
industry  and  of  society  which  dominated  the  South  and 
played  a  leading  role  in  our  national  history  down  to  the 
Civil  War. 

It  was  this  difference  in  natural  environment  (though  less 
pronounced  here  than  in  most  continents),  which,  by  favoring 
different  crops  and  different  systems  of  farming,  made  the 


106  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

New  Englander  and  the  Virginian,  though  of  the  same  race 
and  speech,  so  very  unlike.  The  Civil  War,  indeed,  was  rooted 
in  the  very  soil  and  climate  of  the  continent. 

132.  The  Early  Importance  of  Water  Ways.  As  the  colo- 
nists came  from  over  sea,  they  naturally  settled  first  around 
sheltered  bays  or  estuaries;  and  as  their  numbers  increased  the 
newcomers  pushed  inland  along  the  navigable  rivers.  For 
more  than  a  century  practically  all  travel  and  transportation 
in  America  were  by  water. 

The  French,  indeed,  having  access  by  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  Great  Lakes  to  the  interior  of  the  continent,  and  being 
able  by  short  portages^  over  the  water-parting  to  launch  their 
canoes  again  on  streams  flowing  southward,  continued  to 
make  almost  exclusive  use  of  the  water  ways  until  their  con- 
quest by  the  EngHsh  (1763). 

133.  The  First  Overland  Trails.  At  the  head  of  river 
navigation  the  English  were  forced  to  abandon  water  transpor- 
tation and  strike  into  the  mighty  forest  which  then  clothed  the 
Appalachians.  In  so  doing  they  followed  Indian  trails,  usually 
based  on  buffalo  "traces";  for  the  runways  of  wild  animals 
commonly  form  the  first  paths  through  the  wilderness.  These 
paths,  chesen  with  singular  sagacity,  follow  valleys  in  the 
mountains  but  divides  in  plateaus  or  plains,  for  which  reason 
they  often  serve  the  later  needs  of  civilization. 

^The  portages  of  historic  importance  leading  south  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
system  (aside  from  those  in  New  England)  were  chiefly  the  following: 
(i)  The  "Grand  Pass"  from  Lake  Champlain  to  the  Hudson — a  route 
trodden  by  many  armies  and  sown  with  battlefields.  (2)  The  Oneida 
Carrying  Place,  from  the  Mohawk  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Oswego,  where 
Rome,  N.  Y.,  now  stands.  (3)  From  Lake  Erie,  at  Erie,  Pa.,  to  the 
headwaters  of  the  Ohio.  (4)  From  the  Cuyahoga  River  to  the  Muskingum, 
where  Akron,  Ohio,  is  located.  (5)  From  the  Miami  to  the  Wabash, 
marked  by  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.  (6)  From  the  St.  Joseph  to  the  Kankakee, 
near  South  Bend,  Ind.  (7)  From  the  Chicago  River  to  the  Illinois,  at 
Chicago.  (8)  From  the  Fox  River  to  the  Wisconsin.  (9)  From  Lake 
Superior  to  the  IMississippi  by  way  of  (a)  the  Bois  Brul6  and  St.  Croix 
rivers,  or  (b)  the  St.  Louis  and  West  Savannah  rivers  to  Sandy  Lake,  IVIinn. 
It  is  interesting  and  significant  how  many  of  these  portages  have  furnished 
the  sites  for  cities  and  the  routes  for  canals.  (See  Hulbert,  Historic 
HightVays,  vol.  7;  Robinson,  Development  of  Agriculture  in  Minnesota^ 
Chap.  III.)  .  ^. 


THE    MAKING   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


toy 


Thus  Nemacolin's  Path,  which  Washington  followed  on 
his  mission  to  the  French  (1754),  was  the  forerunner  of  Brad- 
dock's  Trail  (1755),  the  National  Road,  and  the  Baltimore  & 
Ohio  Railroad.  The  Kittanning  Path  up  the  Juniata  to  the 
Allegheny  furnished  the  route  of  Forbes's  Trail  (1758)  and  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  The  Warrior's  Path  from  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  through  Cumberland  Gap  to  the  Falls  of 
the  Ohio  became  Boone's  Wilderness  Road  (1769)  over  which 
Kentucky  was  settled.  After  the  Revolution  had  broken 
the  power  of  the  Six  Nations,  the  Iroquois  trail  from  Albany 


Fig.  59.     Early  highways  to  the  West. 

to  Lake  Erie  developed  "into  the  Great  Genesee  Road,  which 
is  followed  in  a  general  way  by  the  Erie  Canal  and  the  New 
York  Central  &  Hudson  River  Railroad.  These  four  were 
the  first  and  greatest  overland  routes  into  the  interior  of  the 
continent.      (Fig.  59.) 

The  buffalo  and  the  Indian  thus  blazed  the  way  for  the 
locomotive.  This  occurred  not  only  through  the  Appala- 
chians, but  later  through  the  Rockies  and  on  to  the  Pacific. 

134.  The  Bonds  of  Union.  It  was  the  Roman  roads  that 
bound  together  the  Roman  Empire.     Only  good  facilities  for 


lo8  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

transportation  can  unite  remote  sections  in  a  community  of 
interests  and  of  feeling.  It  was  therefore  evident,  even 
before  the  close  of  the  American  Revolution,  that  the  future 
of  the  country  depended  on  overcoming  the  barrier  of  the 
Appalachians. 

In  spite  of  bridle  paths  and  even  rough  wagon  roads,  the 
mountains  still  remained  virtually  impassable  to  commerce ; 
the  western  country  was  consequently  dependent  on  the 
Mississippi,  and  its  mouth  was  held  by  a  foreign  power.  In 
despair  some  men  even  intrigued  for  a  transfer  of  the  region 
to  Spain  or  France.  It  was  this  situation  that  forced  the 
Government,  during  Jefferson's  administration,  to  purchase 
Louisiana  (1803),  and  later  to  construct  the  National  Road 
from  the  Potomac  to  the  Ohio  (18 18). 

The  National  Road,  being  broad,  hard,  and  of  easy  grade, 
and  the  Erie  Canal,  built  (1825)  by  the  state  of  New  York 
to  connect  the  Hudson  with  the  Great  Lakes  through  the 
Mohawk  Gap,  thus  became  at  once  life-giving  arteries  of 
commerce  and  therefore  the  strongest  bonds  of  union  between 
the  East  and  the  West. 

The  work  of  unification  was  powerfully  furthered  by  the 
steamboat  (after  181 1),  which  made  upstream  navigation 
possible;  and  was  completed  between  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
and  the  interior  by  the  railroad.  The  first  continuous  line 
of  rails,  beginning  at  tidewater  on  the  Atlantic,  reached 
Buffalo  in  1842,  the  upper  Ohio  in  1851,  Chicago  in  1852, 
the  Mississippi  at  Rock  Island  in  1854,  the  Missouri  at 
St.  Joseph  in  1859,  and  the  Pacific  at  San  Francisco  in  1869. 
Meantime  the  first  railway  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Great  Lakes  had  been  opened  in  1859.  The  driving  of  the 
last  spike  on  the  Union  Pacific  thus  signalized  the  commer- 
cial conquest  of  the  continent. 


<1 

UNITED  STATES 

Scale 

0       50     100 200 300 40« 50  C 

360  Stalitte  Miles  to  one  inrh 

Cupitah Washington  '^ 

Cities  with  2M,(I00  and  o-er  New  York 
Cities  from  48,000  to  250,000 

and  chief  cities  of  certain 

states  under  ■tt>,doO Louisville 

Principal  raihcat/s 

Jievised,  igij 


Fig.  6i.     Th 


Copyright,  iqto,  by  Rand  McXally  C"  Cj:npany 


nited  Stales. 


X—THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  SECTION 

135.  Climate  and  Surface  of  the  North  Atlantic  Section.    It 

was  not  without  reason  that  the  people  of  New  England 
became  rugged  and  masterful.  On  such  a  "stern  and  rock- 
bound  coast"  there  was  no  place  for  weaklings. 

New  England  is  an  ancient  mountain  region  worn  down  to 
the  very  roots  by  long-continued  exposure  to  the  elements, 
and  submerged  until  the  sea  in  places  breaks  almost  against 
the  foot  of  the  mountains.  The  coast  is,  therefore,  very  irreg- 
ular and  the  lowlands  are  small.  The  climate  is,  moreover, 
harsh — perhaps  in  part  on  account  of  the  Labrador  current 
which  hugs  the  shore  as  far  as  Cape  Cod. 

South  of  the  Hudson,  where  the  land  has  sunk  compara- 
tively little,  the  lowlands  are  larger  than  in  New  England, 
but  the  coastline  is  more  regular  and  devoid  of  good 
harbors,  except  for  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays.  (Fig.  61 .) 
The  climate  from  Cape  Cod  south,  and  also  in  western  New 
York  along  the  Great  Lakes,  is  milder  and  more  equable 
than  in  northern  New  England. 

136.  The  Soils  of  the  North  Atlantic  Section.  Most  of  the 
region  north  of  Philadelphia  and  the  Ohio  Riv^er  was  buried, 
some  thousands  of  years  ago,  beneath  an  ice  sheet  so  thick 
that  it  overrode  the  highest  mountains.  This  huge  glacier 
(Fig.  63)  well  called  "a  gigantic  file,  plow,  stone-crusher,  and 
dump  cart  all  in  one,"  moving  slowly  down  from  Labrador, 
changed  the  whole  face  of  the  country.  It  filled  old  river 
valleys  in  some  places  and  scraped  deep  hollows  in  others, 
thereby  disorganizing  the  drainage,  causing  rapids  and  falls 
in  many  rivers,  and  creating  innumerable  lakes.  This  was 
the  origin  even  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Moreover,  it  stripped 
the  uplands  of  their  original  soil  and  spread  over  the  country 
a  deep  layer  of  rock  waste  called  drift,  varying  from  boulders 
the  size  of  a  house  to  finely  pulverized  "rock  flour." 

(109) 
6 


Xio  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

For  these  reasons  hardly  a  third  of  New  England,  where 
the  glacial  action  was  most  severe,  is  fit  for  the  plow.  But 
the  Middle  States,  from  the  Hudson  to  the  Potomac,  having 
more  level  surface  and  fewer  boulders,  besides  a  milder  climate, 
are  better  adapted  for  modern  commercial  agriculture. 

137.  Early  Industries  of  the  North  Atlantic  Section.  Before 
the  Revolution,  the  North  Atlantic  section  (Fig.  64) ,  like  all 
the  colonies,  was  essentially  agricultural.  The  increase  of 
population,  however,  early  drove  settlers  north  and  west  into 
the  uplands,  where  the  soil  quickly  became  exhausted. 

In  these  circumstances,  the  combination  of  timber  and  har- 
bors was  too  plain  a  mandate  from  nature  to  be  disregarded. 


From  U.  S.  Geo.  S.,  Monogniph  XXXVIII,  PUle  1  »ud  Slith  Annu»l  Report,  Plate  XXIII 
C.  ':3  Ancient  Ice-sheet  Dejiosits  made  by  Glacial  Streams     '         Glacial  Lakes 

9ttm,Existin^  Glaciers  Direction  of  Glacial  Currents  Terminal  Moraine 

Fig.  63.     Glacial  soils  in  the  United  States. 

The  broad  "continental  shelf,"  or  fringe  of  land  but  slightly 
submerged  beneath  the  sea  and  washed  by  the  cold  Labrador 
current,  also  afforded  unexcelled  fishing  grounds,  and  fish 
were  a  commodity  always  in  demand  abroad.  Ship  build- 
ing and  fishing  consequently  soon  became  important  indus- 
tries, and  in  time  New  England  even  began  to  compete  with 
England  for  carrying  trade  upon  the  ocean. 

The  War  of  1812,  together  with  the  Embargo  Act,  destroyed 
fleets  and  built  factories.  In  other  words,  capital  and  labor 
were  thereby  diverted  from  commerce  to  manufactures. 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  SECTION 


Itl 


As  a  result  of  the  development  of  manufactures  since  1812, 
the  North  Atlantic  section,  with  only  one-twentieth  of  the 
area,  has  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  population,  and  produces 
almost  half  the  manufactures  of  the  United  States. 


5% 

30% 

25% 

40% 

Area 

.0  a 

South 

North  Central 

West 

28% 

32%                                    33%                     7% 

Population 

North  Atlantic 

South 

North  Central 

West 

9% 

22% 

58%                                       1 1% 

Agriculture 

0  a 

South 

North  Central 

West 

47% 

13%                       34%                     6% 

Manufactures.. 

North  Atlantic 

South 

North  Central 

X 

Data  from  Thirteenth  Censua 

Fig.  64.     Continental  United  States  by  sections.     Totals:    area 

{not  including  Alaska),  2,026,j8q  square  miles;  population, 

gi,g72,266;  farm  property,  40,qqi  million  dollars; 

manufactures,  20,672  million  dollars.     For 

fisheries,  forests,  and  mineral  products, 

see  Figs,  jji,  ij2,  and  ijq. 

138.  Fisheries  of  the  North  Atlantic  Section.  On  rocky 
coasts  with  cold  climates,  the  "harvest  of  the  sea"  is  often 
richer  than  the  harvest  of  the  land.  Parts  of  New  England,  like 
Norway,  illustrate  this  principle. 

The  deep-sea  fishery  (Fig.  65)  in  New  England  yields  chiefly 
cod  and  haddock;  the  inshore  fishery,  herring  and  mackerel. 
All  these  are  usually  salted  or  smoked  for  market,  though 
on  the  Maine  coast  young  herring  are  canned  in  oil  like 
sardines.  Cod-liver  oil  is  an  important  medicinal  food. 
Shad  are  also  taken  in  the  IMiddle  States  as  they  ascend  the 
rivers.  In  addition,  menhaden  are  extensively  caught  for 
use  as  fertilizers  on  worn-out  soils.  Other  important  sea 
products  are  lobsters,  crabs,  clams,  and,  in  sheltered  waters 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


from  Cape  Cod  south,  oysters.  The  most  productive  oyster 
beds  are  in  Long  Island  Sound  and  Chesapeake  Bay.  By  far 
the  most  important  fishery  products  of  this  section  are  the 

cod  and  oyster. 

The  principal 
fishing  ports  are 
Gloucester  and 
Boston ,  while  the 
principal  oyster 
port  is  Baltimore. 

139.  Forest  Prod- 
ucts of  the  North 
Atlantic  Section. 
Lumbering  still  re- 
mains an  important 
industry  in  north- 
ern New  England, 
the  Adirondacks, 
and  the  Alleghenies. 
However,  white 
pine  has  become 
extremely  scarce, 
the  species  of  pres- 
ent  commercial 
value  being  chiefly 
Fig.  65.     American  Fishing  Banks  in  Atlantic,     soruce  and  hemlock 

The  principal  lumbering  states  in  the  North  Atlantic  section, 
measured  by  value  of  products,  are  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 
The  leading  lumber  markets  are  Williamsport  and  Elmira  on 
the  Susquehanna,  Burlington  on  Lake  Champlain,  and  Bangor 
at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Penobscot. 

Paper,  for  which  the  modern  newspaper  has  created  an 
enormous  demand,  is  made  chiefly  of  wood  pulp.  The  pulp 
mills  are  usually  located  where  rivers  at  once  deliver  the  timber 
and  furnish  power;  for  example,  at  Watertown  near  the  foot 
of  the  Adirondacks.     The  mills  of  Holyoke,  Mass.,  however, 


THE   NORTH   ATLANTIC   SECTION 


113 


which  have  the  largest  output  of  any  in  America,  being  adja- 
cent to  large  centers  of  population,  mostly  use  linen  rags  for 
the  best  quality  of  paper. 

140.  Farming  in  the  North  Atlantic  Section.  After  the 
opening  of  the  Erie  Canal,  and  especially  after  the  railways 
had  reached  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  old  self-sufficing  type 
of  agriculture  had  to  be  abandoned  in  the  East.  The  rocky 
hillsides  and  the  thin  glacial  soils  of  New  England  could  not 
compete  with  the  richer  soils  of  the  prairies  in  growing  wheat, 
nor  with  the  ranches  of  Texas  in  raising  cattle.  The  level 
districts  of  the  Middle  States,  where  farm  machinery  can  be 
used,  do  indeed  grow  considerable  wheat,  oats,  and  rye,  witli 
lesser  crops  of  com  and  buckwheat.  But  agriculture  is  in  the 
main  concerned  with  products  other  than  grain,  even  in  the 
Genesee  Valley,  which  was  for  almost  a  generation  (1825- 
1850)  the  granary  of  the  country. 

By  reason  of  the  moist  climate,  the  steep  slopes  in  the  hilly 
districts,  and  the  excellent  markets  in  the  cities,  the  dairy 
industry,  which  began  about  1830  in  central  New  York,  is 


f'f"^--^^ 

HAY  AND  FORAGE                 /^ 

■/TCzn^ 

^^'  r-Tly^ 

:fyiyMr^^si 

A^^- 

\  /    jv^~-~~jir 

A  r\ 

Vrfm    ' 

i          \                    1 

]  V 

:£iy-^ ; 

•V    f     1      't~~      \ — -r 

H'"' 

Fig.  66. 


After  Thirteenth  Census 

The  distribution  of  hay  and  forage. 


114  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

now  by  far  the  most  important  branch  of  agriculture.  Near 
through  Unes  of  railway,  milk  is  sent  to  market  by  special  trains; 
in  other  districts  it  is  made  into  butter,  cheese,  or  condensed 
milk.  New  York  State  ranks  next  to  Wisconsin  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cheese. 

Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  dairying,  hay  is  on  the  whole 
the  leading  crop.  (Fig.  66.)  Potatoes  are  also  commonly 
grown  in  the  north,  especially  in  Maine  and  New  York,  being 
suited  to  a  cool,  moist  climate  and  doing  well  even  on  rather 
poor  soil.  Special  crops,  cultivated  intensively  on  limited  areas, 
are  hops,  beans,  cabbage,  onions,  and  sugar  beets  in  western 
New  York,  fruit  (and  fruit  trees)  along  the  Great  Lakes  and 
Chesapeake  Bay,  tobacco  in  the  Connecticut  Valley  and  along 
the  sheltered  eastern  foot  of  the  mountains  from  Maryland 
to  central  New  York.  In  the  lowlands  near  the  great  cities, 
garden  "truck"  or  vegetables  are  extensively  grown,  to  some 
extent  under  glass  and  with  artificial  heat.  This  is  commer- 
cially possible  in  competition  with  the  South,  because  the 
freight  rates  are  high  on  such  perishable  products  if  shipped 
from  a  distance,  and  also  because  the  returns  per  acre  will 
pay  even  on  high-priced  land. 

141.  Industries  Using  Farm  Products.  North  of  the  early- 
vegetable  belt,  the  canning  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and  oysters  is  a 
large  industry,  especially  at  Baltimore  and  at  Wilmington,  Del. 
Canneries  are  also  numerous  in  New  York  State.  Flour 
milling  is  important  at  Buffalo  and  Rochester  and  the  manu- 
facture of  corn  starch  at  Oswego,  all  having  water  power  and 
water  transportation  from  the  West.  Meat  packing  is  carried 
on  where  land  and  water  transportation  meet,  and  live  stock 
from  the  West  must  consequently  be  unloaded,  as  at  all  the 
leading  seaports  from  Boston  to  Baltimore. 

Industries  employing  in  whole  or  in  part  iriiported  materials 
naturally  flourish  near  tidewater.  Such  are  the  roasting 
and  grinding  of  coffee  and  spices  at  New  York,  Hkewise  tobacco 
manufactures  and  the  refining  of  sugar  in  all  the  great  seaports. 
The  largest  sugar  refineries  are  in  Brooklyn. 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  SECTION 


"5 


The  tobacco  industry  is  also  important  in  cities  near  the 
tobacco  district,  as  Lancaster  and  York,  Pa,,  and  Bing- 
hamton,   N.   Y. 

142.  Why  Manufactures  Flourish  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Section.  In  this  age  of  machinery  the  dominant  factor  is 
mechanical  power.  (Fig.  67.)  Where  the  waterfalls  and  coal 
fields  are,  there  the  factories  prosper  and  multiply. 


By  kinas 


By  sections 


By  industries 
Data  from  Thirteenth  Census 


Fig.  67.     Mechanical  power  used  in  manufactures  in  the   United  States. 
Total  at  Thirteenth  Census,  18.6  million  horse  power.     Derivative 
powers  include  electricity,  and  compressed  air,  derived  from 
water  power,  steam,  and  gas  engines. 

The  rivers  of  New  England  and  New  York  descend  rapidly 

from  considerable  elevations,  forming  many  waterfalls  and 

rapids.     Their  flow  is,   moreover,   quite  constant;    for   the 

numerous  lakes  left  by  the  great  glacier  serve  as  natural 

reservoirs,   and  the  rainfall  is  well  distributed  throughout 

the  year.     For  these  reasons  the  rivers  furnish  excellent  water 

power.    At  the  Thirteenth  Census  more  than  a  third  of  all  the 

power  employed  in  New  England  was  derived  from  water — 

either  directly  or  through  the  medium  of  electricity — a  far 

larger  proportion  than  in  any  other  section  of  the  cotmtry. 

And  the  enormous  power  of  Niagara  (Figs.  68  and  69)  may 

yet  create  in  that  vicinity  the  greatest  manufacturing  center 

of  the  continent.* 

^Water  power  is  also  ftirnished  in  New  York  by  other  rivers  flowing 
to  Lake  Ontario,  as  at  Rochester,  Auburn,  Oswego,  and  Watertown;  by 
streams  descending  from  the  Allegheny  Plateau,  as  at  Jamestown,  Elmira, 
and  Binghamton;  and  by  the  upper  Hudson  and  its  tributaries,  as  at 
Troy,  Cohoes,  and  Glens  Falls. 


ii6 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


South  of  the  Hudson  there  is  a  "Fall  Line"  at  the  inner  edge 
of  the  Coastal  Plain,  where  the  ocean  formerly  beat  against  the 

land.  These  falls, 
affording  power 
and  usually  form- 
ing the  head  of  nav- 
igation, are  marked 
by  a  row  of  im- 
portant cities  from 
New  Jersey  to 
Alabama.  (Fig.  54.) 

The  Middle 
Atlantic  region, 
moreover,  abounds 
in  underground 
treasures,  espe- 
cially coal  andiron. 

After  the  War  of 
1 8 1 2 ,  these  mineral 
resources  became 
the  foundation  of 
a   great   manufac- 


FiG.  68. 


Lofig  distance  transmission  of  electric 
power  from  Niagara  Falls. 


turing   industry  and    an  immense   commerce  south  of  the 
Hudson,  as   water    power   did   in    New  England. 
143.    Leather  Manufactures  in  the  North  Atlantic  Section 

The  oak  and  hemlock  forests  of  New  England,  furnishing  tan- 
bark,  early  led  to  a  tanning  industry.  This  industry,  still 
carried  on  at  Peabody,  Wobum,  and  Salem,  Mass.,  in  the 
main  has  followed  the  retreating  forests  to  the  west  and  south. 
To  stay  further  migration,  chrome  tannage  is  now  extensively 
used  at  Philadelphia,  especially  for  shoe  uppers.  Other  impor- 
tant tanning  centers  are  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  Wilmington,  Del. 
The  manufacture  of  shoes  by  hand  was  established  at  Lynn 
as  early  as  1750,  by  John  Adams  Dagyr,  a  Welsh  shoemaker. 
Until  a  recent  date  (about  i860),  shoes  continued  to  be  made 
by  hand.     The  industry  consequently  had  a  chance  to  take 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  SECTION 


117 


root  in  districts  remote  from  water  power,  with  the  result  that 
shoe  factories  in  New  England  now  use  chiefly  steam. 

At  the  Thirteenth  Census,  by  far  the  largest  output  of  shoes 
was  at  Lynn,  Brockton,  and  Haverhill,  Mass.  Other  impor- 
tant shoe  centers  were  Boston,  Manchester,  N.  H.,  Marlborough 
and  Salem,  Mass.  In  the  Middle  States,  Rochester  and  New 
York  had  the  largest  value  of  product. 

Leather  gloves  are  made  chiefly  at  Gloversville  and  Johns- 
town, N.  Y.,  where  deer  skins  from  the  Adirondacks  are  said 
to  have  been  the  original  materials  used. 

144.  Textile  Manufactures  in  the  North  Atlantic  Section. 
Cotton  and  woolen  mills,  unlike  shoe  factories,  were  originally 
established  near  water  power;  notably  at  Lewiston,  Me.; 
Manchester,  N.  H. ;  Fall  River,  Fitchburg,  Lawrence,  Lowell, 
and  Taunton,  Mass.;   Pawtucket  and  Woonsocket,  R.  I. 

Steam  has  also  built  up  a  large  textile  industry  in  tide- 
water cities,  where  coal  and  raw  materials  can  be  cheaply 
obtained;  for  example,  at  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  Warwick  and 


Courtea7  of  tba  Rtrennd  Philip  W.  Molher 


Fig.  69.     Water  pozvcr  at  A^iagara.     Note  the  huge  pipes  leading  to 
the  power  Iioitse  at  font  of  bluff. 


Il8  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Providence,  R.  I.,  and  Philadelphia.  Fall  River,  having  both 
water  power  and  ocean  transportation,  is  the  greatest  cotton 
manufacturing  city  in  America,  if  not  in  the  world. 

In  woolen  goods  proper,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  holds  first  place; 
but  in  carpets  the  Philadelphia  district,  including  Norristown, 
Pa.,  and  Camden,  N.  J.,  is  preeminent.^  Another  important 
district  for  woolens  and  knit  goods  extends  through  central 
New  York,  including  Cohoes  at  the  falls  of  the  Mohawk, 
Amsterdam,  and  Utica.  This  district  profited  originally  from 
the  Erie  Canal,  which  brought  wool  from  Ohio,  especially 
after  the  opening  of  the  canal  connecting  the  Ohio  with  Lake 
Erie  (1832).  The  same  district  has  a  large  output  of  knit 
goods,  largely  cotton. 

Silk  manufactures  center  at  Paterson,  N.  J.,  the  "Lyons  of 
America,"  at  the  falls  of  the  Passaic  River  and  adjacent  to 
New  York,  where  much  raw  silk  is  imported.  The  industry 
has,  however,  spread  to  the  neighboring  cities  of  West  Hoboken, 
Jersey  City,  and  New  York,  and  even  throughout  eastern 
Pennsylvania  as  far  as  Philadelphia. 

The  dyeing  of  textiles  has  become  a  separate  industry 
at  most  of  the  great  textile  centers.  It  is  a  specialty  at 
Passaic,   N.  J. 

Rubber  goods,  being  made  of  imported  material,  are  manu- 
factured chiefly  in  tidewater  cities,  notably  New  York  and 
adjacent  cities,  also  Boston  and  Chelsea,  Mass. 

Ready-made  clothing  is  turned  out  wherever  there  is  cheap 
labor  and  a  large  market;  that  is,  in  all  great  cities,  especially 
New  York.  Shirts,  collars,  and  cuffs,  however,  are  largely  made 
at  Troy;  hats  at  Danbury,  Conn.,  and  at  Orange  and  Newark, 
N.  J.  These  curious  localizations  of  industries  are  due  in  the 
main  to  an  early  start,  the  consequent  advantage  of  experience, 
and  a  class  of  skilled  workmen.     (§  70.) 

145..  Mineral  Industries  of  New  England.  New  England 
lacks  mineral  resources  of  large  commercial  importance  other 
than   building   stone.     Granite,    the   most   durable   stone,    is 

iSee  Thirteenth  Census,  Vol.  X.,  pages  903-975. 


THE  NORTH   ATLANTIC  SECTION  119 

worked  in  many  places,  especially  where  it  is  accessible  to 
water  transportation,  as  at  Quincy,  Mass.  Marble,  formed 
from  limestone  by  heat  and  pressure  during  the  upheaval 
of  the  mountains,  is  quarried  mainly  near  Rutland  and 
Proctor,  Vt. 

V  There  is  also  some  iron  ore  in  New  England,  and  blast  fur- 
naces, burning  charcoal,  were  erected  in  Massachusetts  as 
early  as  1702.  This  early  iron  industry  in  New  England  has 
left  an  c^shoot  in  the  manufacture  of  light  metal  wares  need- 
ing little  raw  material  but  much  skilled  labor;  for  the  more 
largely  labor  enters  into  the  cost  of  any  product,  the  less  its 
localization  depends  on  nearness  to  raw  materials.  Machine 
tools,  for  example,  are  made  extensively  at  Nashua,  N.  H., 
and  Worcester,  Mass.;  bicycles  at  Hartford,  firearms  at  New 
Haven  and  Springfield,  fixed  ammunition  at  Bridgeport,  clocks 
and  brassware  at  Waterbury  and  Ansonia,  hardware  at  New 
Britain,  plated  ware  at  Meriden,  watches  at  Waltham,  jewelry 
at  Providence.  Moreover,  the  shipbuilding  industry,  now 
employing  iron  and  steel,  is  carried  on  at  Bath,  Me.,  Quincy, 
Mass.,  and  New  Ivondon,  Conn. 

New  England,  lacking  coal  and  therefore  unable  to  compete 
in  the  smelting  of  iron,  owes  her  continued  success  in  metal 
manufactures  solely  to  experience  and  skill.  It  is  a  clear  case 
of  the  triumph  of  brains. 

146.  Mineral  Fuels  in  the  Middle  States.  The  largest  cities 
of  the  Middle  States — New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Pittsburgh — owe  their  locations  indeed  to  water  transporta- 
tion, but  their  phenomenal  growth  largely  to  easily-accessible 
coal  fields  (Fig.  70),  which  have  furnished  the  mechanical 
power  for  manufactures. 

Several  valleys  around  Scranton,  Wilkes-Barre,  and  Potts- 
ville  contain  practically  all  the  anthracite  coaP  in  the  United 
States.  This  small  district  (less  than  500  square  miles)  is 
therefore  of  extraordinary  commercial  importance.     (Fig.  70.) 

iValue  at  mine  in  191 3,  195.2  million  dollars,  against  565.3  million  for 
all  the  rest  of  the  coal  produced  in  the  United  States. 


120 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Along  the  western  flank  of  the  Allegheny  Plateau  lies  a  great 
field  of  natural  gas,  petroleum,  and  soft  coal.  (Figs.  70  and  71.) 
One  seam  of  this  coal,  the  Pittsburgh,  is,  in  places,  sixteen  feet 
thick.  This  seam  made  Pittsburgh  a  great  manufacturing  city. 
The  petroleum  from  around  Bradford,  Oil  City,  and  Olean 
is  mostly  piped  to  tidewater^  and  there  refined,  mainly  at 
Philadelphia  and  at  Bayonne,  N.  J.  The  coal  for  iron  smelting 
is  largely  coked  in  a  ^vilderness  of  ovens  around  Connellsvillc, 
situated  on  the  best  field  of  coking  coal  in  America. 


Fig.  70.     Coal  fields  of  the  United  States. 

147.  The  Iron  Industry  of  the  Middle  States.  Iron  furnaces, 
using  charcoal,  were  early  erected  in  New  Jersey  (17 10)  and 
Pennsylvania  (17 16);  but  the  iron  industry  attained  real 
importance  only  after  the  War  of  181 2.  Charcoal  later  (about 
1840)  gave  way  to  anthracite  as  fuel;  this  was  in  turn  super- 
seded (1875)  by  coke,  even  in  the  anthracite  district.  In  each 
case  the  change  occurred  because  the  new  fuel  proved  the 
cheaper. 

iThe  first  pipe  line  was  built  in  1865;  the  first  line  to  tidewater  in 
1880.  By  1902  there  were  57,800  miles  of  pipe  lines  (Table  6),  moving 
annually  some  10,000,000  tons  of  petroleum  an  average  distance  of  380 
miles. 


THE    NORTH    ATLANTIC   SECTION 


Since  coke  has  generally  supplanted  anthracite  for  smelting 
purposes,  and  the  iron  ores  of  the  Middle  States  have  proved 


Fig.  7  i.     Oil  and  gas  fields  of  tJic  United  States. 


less  profitable  than  the  richer  and  more  easily-mined  ores  of 
the  Superior  ranges,  the  center  of  the  iron  industry  has  crossed 
the  mountains.  It  is  now  located  on  the  upper  Ohio,  where 
Connellsville  coke  meets  the  Lake  Superior  iron  ore  landed 
at  the  Lake  Erie  ports.     The  Pittsburgh  district  (Fig.   72), 


Fig.  72.    Steel  works  at  Pittsburgh. 


122  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY  i 

including  Allegheny/  McKeesport,  Newcastle,  Homestead, 
Johnstown,  Pa.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  and  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio,  leads  not  only  in  blast  furnaces  but  also  in  the 
production  of  steel  rails  and  heavy  steel  goods  of  every  descrip- 
tion, which  can  be  made  more  cheaply  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
blast  furnaces.  Erie,  one  of  the  iron-ore  ports,  also  has  a 
considerable  iron  industry;  while  Altoona  leads  in  railway 
rolling  stock. 

Important  iron  and  steel  works  are  also  found  in  Harris- 
burg,  Steelton,  Reading,  Trenton,  Scranton,  Allentown,  Easton, 
South  Bethlehem,  and  other  cities  near  the  anthracite  deposits 
which  once  furnished  fuel.  Moreover,  the  Philadelphia  dis- 
trict, including  Chester,  Pa.,  has  immense  ship  yards  and 
locomotive  works.  The  Delaware  River  is  indeed  the  American 
Clyde — that  is,  the  center  of  American  shipbuilding.  Sparrow 
Point,  Baltimore,  has  blast  furnaces  and  steel  mills  fed  with 
imported  ores,  largely  from  Cuba.  Wilmington,  Del.,  shares 
in  shipbuilding  and  specializes  in  steam  cars. 

A  third  iron-working  district  lies  along  the  Hudson  and  in 
central  New  York,  where  iron  ores  from  the  Adirondacks 
were  originally  employed.  Albany  and  Schenectady  now 
manufacture  respectively  cars  and  locomotives,  the  latter  also 
producing  electrical  machinery.  Auburn  and  Syracuse  are 
the  principal  eastern  seats  of  the  agricultural  implement 
industry. 

148.  Other  Mineral  Industries  of  the  Middle  States. 
Another  important  metal  is  aluminum,  which  is  used  for  many 
purposes  in  place  of  brass.  Being  lighter  and  an  excellent 
conductor  of  electricity,  aluminum  is  also  beginning  to  displace 
copper  for  long-distance  electrical  transmission — for  example, 
in  the  Colgate  power  plant.  It  is  smelted  in  electric  furnaces, 
some  of  which  are  supplied  with  power  by  Niagara. 

Building  stone  is  even  more  extensively  quarried  in  the 
Middle  States  than  in  New  England.  Pennsylvania  holds 
first  place  in  slate  and  limestone,  and  New  York  in  sandstone. 

'United  with  Pittsburgh  in  1906. 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  SECTION  I23 

For  structural  purposes  the  clays  of  the  Coastal  Plain  from 
New  York  to  Philadelphia  are  also  of  prime  importance,  giving 
rise  to  a  large  manufacture  of  brick,  terra-cotta,  drain  pipes, 
and  pottery.  Trenton,  on  the  Fall  Line,  had  at  the  Thirteenth 
Census  the  largest  production  of  china  ware,  porcelain,  and 
other  fine  pottery  in  the  United  States.  Much  of  the  clay  for 
the  Trenton  potteries,  however,  is  brought  from  a  distance, 
some  even  from  England.  This  is  possible  because  clay  comes 
very  cheaply  as  ballast. 

The  center  of  glass  manufacture,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
Pittsburgh,  where  natural  gas  serves  as  fuel.  The  principal 
ingredient  in  glass,  pure  quartz  sand,  is  widely  distributed. 

The  principal  binding  substances  are  mortar  and  cement. 
Mortar  is  compounded  of  sand  and  lime;  cement,  of  clay  and 
lime.     Portland    cement    (Fig.    73)    is    now    so    extensively 

32^  12%  9i  47'f< 


Lehig-h  District 
26  million  barrels 

Illinois  and 

Northwest 

Indiana 

10 

Pacific 
Coast 
States 

7.4 

All  Others 
3<> 

Data  from  Mineral  Resources,  1911-13 

Fig.  73.     Portland  cement  in  the    United  States.     Total  average  Jar 
five  years,   82.4   million   barrels. 

manufactured  in  the  United  States,  largely  in  the  Lehigh  and 
Hudson  valleys,  that  imports  have  almost  ceased. 

A  belt  of  rock  salt  and  gypsum  deposits  extends  through 
central  New  York,  which  sometimes  leads  and  sometimes 
ranks  next  to  Michigan,  in  the  output  of  salt.  The  salt  wells 
near  Syracuse  have  also  given  rise  to  important  chemical 
industries,  especially  the  manufacture  of  soda.  The  gypsum 
serves  as  a  fertilizer,  and  when  burned  (plaster  of  Paris)  it 
is  used  for  wall  plaster  and  statuary. 

149.  Seaports  of  New  England.  New  England  is  by  reason 
of  its  broken  coast  line  the  most  maritime  section  of  the 
country,  but  it  labors  under  serious  handicaps  in  commerce. 
In  the  first  place,  its  ports  lie  farther  from  the  interior 
of  the  continent  than  do  New  York  or  Baltimore.  Again, 
it  is  cut  off  from  the  West  by  the  Berkshire  Hills,  which  compel 


124 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


a  climb  of  a  thousand  feet.  Finally,  the  trend  of  the  valleys 
in  New  England  is  toward  the  St.  Lawrence:  but  that 
natural  route  to  the  interior  of  the  continent  is  largely  closed 
to  commerce  by  the  Canadian  boundary.  All  of  these  natural 
disadvantages,  however,  are  in  a  measure  offset  by  the  fact  that 
the  railways  make  the  same  rate  to  Boston  as  to  New  York, 
on  shipments  from  the  West  for  export  to  other  countries. 

Boston,  the 
principal  seaport 
(Fig.  74)  of  New 
England,  is  the 
greatest  wool  and 
leather  market  in 
the  United  States, 
owing  to  the  large 
development  of 
textile  and  leather 
manufactures  in 
New  England.  Its 
exports,  which  fall 
considerably  short 
of  its  imports  in 
value,  are  princi- 
pally foodstuffs 
from  the  West, 
which  come  east 
through  either  the 
As  a  business  center 


I>»ta  from  V.  8.  Gsolofiol  Surrey 

Fig.  74.     Boston  Harbor  showing  bars  and 

islands  which  protect  it  and  railways 

converging  on  harbor. 


St.  Lawrence  or  the  Mohawk  valleys 

Boston  includes  BrookHne,    Cambridge,   and   other   outlying 

suburbs,  which  in  effect  double  its  population. 

An  eight-mile,  sea-level  ship  canal  has  been  opened  between 
Cape  Cod  Bay  and  Buzzards  Bay,  to  avoid  the  long  and  dan- 
gerous route  around  Cape  Cod  and  to  give  an  inside  passage 
between  Boston  and  New  York. 

Portland,  the  second  port  of  New  England,  lies  at  the  point 
of   the   Maine  coast  where  the  Atlantic  comes  nearest   to 


THE   NORTH    ATLANTIC  SECTION  125 

Montreal.  It  is  thus  the  natural  outlet  of  Montreal,  that  is,  of 
nearly  all  Canada,  whenever  the  St.  Lawrence  is  icebound. 
The  completion  of  the  bridge  at  Quebec  would  naturally 
bring  Portland  into  equally  close  relations  with  the  region 
north  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  east  of  Montreal  did  not  the 
contract  of  the  Canadian  government  with  the  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific  Railway  provide  that  Canadian  ports — St.  John,  N.  B., 
or  Halifax,  N.  S. — must  be  favored. 

150.  Seaports  of  the  Middle  States.  Philadelphia,  at  the 
head  of  deep  water  on  the  Delaware,  was  the  metropolis  of 
the  country  during  the  Revolution.  The  mountains,  pre- 
senting a  barrier  toward  the  west,  cost  it  this  preeminence. 
Moreover,  the  river  is  sometimes  icebound,  which  does  not 
happen  at  New  York  because  of  the  tidal  currents  through 
East  River.  For  these  reasons  the  largest  interests  of  Phila- 
delphia are  manufacturing  rather  than  commercial,  though 
it  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  ports  of  the  United  States. 
(Fig.  75.)  It  is  the  point  where  the  Pennsylvania  railway 
system,  extending  to  Pittsburgh  and  the  West,  reaches  tide- 
water.    (Fig.  12.) 

Baltimore,  built  on  the  Fall  Line,  is  likewise  a  great 
manufacturing  city,  and  the  seaport  nearest  to  the  upper 
Ohio  Valley  by  way  of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad.  It 
is  also  the  eastern  outlet  of  the  western  Maryland  line, 
connecting    with    the    Gould    railway    system    which    extends 


Nezv  York 

43.61 

G.et 

14.21 

Data  from  C.  S.  Statist 

Philadelphia 

6.1: 

Neiv  Orleans 

o.c: 

San  Francisco 

5.« 

5.n 

Baltimore 

4.11 

3.01 
3.31 
^.41 

Detroit : 

Buffalo 

Galveston 

All  Others 

cal  Abstract,  1918 

Fig.  75.     Percentage   of  foreign   commerce   of    United    States 
handled  by  leading  seaports. 


126 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


from  Pittsburgh  to  the  Far  West.  Nevertheless,  though  the 
distance  to  the  Ohio  is  shorter,  the  summit  level  of  the 
mountains  here  is  higher  than  farther  north. 

New  York,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  occupies  a  site 
fitted,  by  reason  of  a  superb  harbor  (Fig.  76)  and  unequaled 

ease  of  access  to 
the  interior,  for  the 
metropoHs  of  the 
continent.  Already 
it  is  the  greatest 
commercial  port  in 
the  world,  and  in 
population  ranks 
next  to  London. 
Its  manufactures, 
including  almost 
every  conceivable 
article,  exceed  in 
value  those  of  any 
other  city  in  the 
United  States;  and 
yet  New  York's 
largest  interests  are 
commercial,  rather 
than  manufac- 
turing. It  handles 
nearly  half  of  our  total  foreign  commerce,  and  largely  for  this 
reason  it  is  the  chief  financial  center  of  the  country.  For  many 
business  purposes  it  includes  Yonkers  up  the  Hudson  and  the 
neighboring  cities  west  of  the  Hudson — Hoboken,  Jersey  City, 
Bayonne,  Newark,  and  Elizabeth.  In  fact,  Hoboken  and 
Jersey  City,  fronting  on  New  York  Bay,  contain  the  terminals 
of  many  steamship  Hnes,  and  several  railways  from  the  West. 
New  York  now  has  several  tunnels  which  connect  Man- 
hattan with  the  Jersey  shore  and  with  Long  Island,  where 
some  of  the  railways  have  acquired  large  tracts  of  land  for 


Pata  from  V.  fS    Geological  EiirTcj 

Fig.  76.     New  York  Harbor,  showing  deep 

water  channels,  adjacent  cities,  and 

converging  railways. 


THE   NORTH    ATLANTIC  SECTION 


127 


freight  terminals.  A  subway  the  entire  length  of  Manhattan, 
with  connection  to  Long  Island,  has  also  been  constructed 
by  the  city  to  facihtate  rapid  transit.     (Fig.  77.) 

151.  Canals  in  the  Middle  States.  Canals  were  early  built 
up  the  Delaware,  Schuylkill,  Susquehanna,  and  Potomac 
valleys,  and  also  across  the  watershed  between  the  Delaware 
and  the  Hudson.  Their  main  service  has  been  to  carry  coal 
from  the  mines  to  tidewater  and  especially  to  New  York. 
At  the  Census  of  Water  Transportation  in  1906,  however,  these 
canals  had  either  been  abandoned,  or  had  passed  under  the 
control  of  the  coal-carrying  railroads  and  were  then  of  little 
practical  importance.  (Fig.  62.)  Yet  several  of  these  canals, 
especially  the  Delaware  and  Raritan,  could  easily  be  made 
serious  factors  in  the  coal  trade  of  New  York  and  even  of  New 
England.' 

New  York,  unlike  Pennsylvania,  has  retained  control  of  its 
canals,  which  connect  the  Hudson  with  the  waters  tributary 
to  the.  St.  Lawrence,  along  three  routes.  The  Champlain 
Canal  goes  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  while  the  Erie  Canal 
connects  with  Lake  Ontario  through  the  Oswego  Canal,  and 
also  reaches  Lake  Erie  directly  at  Buffalo.  These  canals  have 
been  toll  free  since   1882;  and  they  have  been  deepened  to 


Fig,  77,     Subways  and  tunnels,  New  York,  uniting  Long  Island, 
Manhattan,  and  New  Jersey 


128  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

twelve  feet,  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $100,000,000,  so  as  to 
admit  1,500-ton  barges.  This  project  was  undertaken  in  the 
hope  of  meeting  the  competition  of  the  St.  Lawrence  route 
by  reducing  the  cost  of  transportation  between  Buffalo  and 
New  York  to  25  cents  per  ton,  or  about  .5  mill  per  ton  per  mile. 

Finally,  a  coastwise  canal  connects  Chesapeake  and  Dela- 
ware bays.  This  canal,  providing  an  inside  route  for  barge 
traffic,  is  likely  to  be  replaced  at  no  distant  date  by  a  sea- 
level  ship  canal.  Besides  saving  distance  and  time,  such  a 
canal  would  make  Philadelphia  a  port  of  call  on  the  north- 
em  route  from  Baltimore  to  Europe. 

The  traffic  of  all  these  canals — even  of  the  Erie  Canal — has 
declined  greatly  in  recent  years.  The  obvious  reason  is  that 
the  canals  are  too  small  for  modern  traffic  requirements. 
Moreover,  goods  must  be  transhipped  to  and  from  canal 
boats,  while  railway  cars  are  hauled  through  to  destination. 
Again,  the  railways  commonly  refuse  to  "pro-rate"  or  make 
joint  through  rates  with  canals,  thereby  cutting  them  off 
from  through  traffic.  Further,  the  railroads  control  most  of 
the  coal  mines  which  would  naturally  furnish  the  chief  canal 
tonnage.  Finally,  the  railroads  now  own  most  of  the  canals 
themselves  and,  having  no  interest  in  enlarging  them,  have 
either  abandoned  them  or  left  them  to  decay.  In  these  ways, 
the  natural  advantages  of  the  Middle  States  for  internal  navi- 
gation have  been  largely  nullified. 

152.  Railway  Routes  to  the  West.  The  finest  harbor 
in  the  world  would  remain  unused  if  backed  by  desert  or  by 
impenetrable  mountains.  Even  with  djmamite  at  their 
disposal,  railways  seldom  penetrate  mountains  except  along 
pathways  prepared  by  running  water.  The  rivers  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  region,  despite  the  decadence  of  inland 
navigation,  thus  open  transportation  routes  into  the  interior 
of  the  continent. 

The  Potomac  forms  the  route  of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
Railroad,  which  follows  in  part  the  very  trail  used  by  Wash- 
ington; and  the  Juniata  branch  of  tlie  Susquehanna  is  closely 


THE   NORTH    ATLANTIC   SECTION  129 

followed  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  The  north  and  west 
branches  of  the  Susquehanna,  together  with  the  Delaware, 
serve  still  other  lines.^ 

The  Mohawk  Gap,  however,  having  a  summit  elevation  at 
Rome  of  only  445  feet,  against  2,161  on  the  Pennsylvania  and 
2,620  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  has  been  the  dominant  factor  in 
the  commerce  of  the  continent.  It  furnished  the  route  of  the 
Erie  Canal,  which  built  up  along  its  course  a  row  of  cities  — 
Albany,  Troy,  Cohoes,  Schenectady,  Utica,  Syracuse,  Roches- 
ter, and  Buffalo — unmatched  except  on  the  Rhine.  The 
Mohawk  Gap,  moreover,  carries  six  lines  of  rails  which  cross 
the  divide  on  almost  inappreciable  grades.  The  Mohawk 
Gap  thus  renders  the  Hudson  the  eastern  gateway  of  the 
continent.  New  York  the  Empire  State,  and  New  York  City 
the  metropolis  of  the  New  World. 

Buffalo  stands  at  the  east,  as  Chicago  and  Duluth  stand  at 
the  west  end  of  the  Great  Lakes  route.  Moreover,  the  rail- 
ways crossing  the  mountains  strike  either  the  Great  Lakes 
or  the  upper  Ohio.  Buffalo  and  Pittsburgh  are  thus  the  two 
gateways  of  the  West. 

^The  Erie,    Lehigh  V^alley,    Lackawanna,   and   New   York,    Ontario  & 


XI— THE    SOUTHERN    SECTION 

153.  The  Southern  People.  No  other  section  has  so  many- 
people  of  direct  Revolutionary  ancestry  as  the  region  lying 
south  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  rivers.  On  the  Atlantic 
slope,  indeed,  the  same  families  have  dwelt  in  the  same 
counties,  almost  unaffected  by  immigration,  since  the  days  of 
Washington. 

The  original  planters  were  largely  English  gentry,  though 
in  South  Carolina  the  people  had  a  dash  of  Huguenot  blood. 
Louisiana  and  Florida  also  brought  a  considerable  French 
and  a  lesser  Spanish  element  into  the  Union.  The  uplands, 
on  the  other  hand,  were  peopled  chiefly  by  Scotch-Irish,  who 
formed  the  fighting  vanguard  of  civilization. 

154.  Surface  and  Soils  of  the  South.  The  South  consists 
in  the  main  of  a  broad  coastal  plain,  mostly  below  400  feet 
elevation ;  a  hilly  or  Piedmont  belt  above  the  Fall  Line ;  the 
Appalachian  Highland;  and  the  lower  half  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  West  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Appalachian  uplift 
reappears  in  the  Ozarks,  an  outlying  part  of  the  same 
mountain  system. 

Three  districts  show  distinct  characteristics.  Southern 
Florida  is  underlaid  by  coral  limestone,  and  barely  reclaimed 
from  the  sea.  The  Mississippi  flood  plain,  thirty  to  sixty 
miles  wide  and  about  600  miles  long,  is  swampy  indeed 
but  extraordinarily  fertile,  like  the  valley  of  the  Ganges. 
Western  Texas  and  Oklahoma  are  a  part  of  the  Great  Plains. 

The  soil  of  the  Southern  lowlands  is  sandy  near  the  sea,  but 
clayey  in  the  upper  part  of  the  coastal  plain.  This  clay 
belt  was  the  original  seat  of  tobacco  and  cotton  culture  and 
forms,  together  with  the  Mississippi  flood  plain,  the  famous 
"black  belt"  of  the  South,  where  negroes  largely  outnumber 
the  whites.  This  belt  is  moreover  growing  ever  blacker  as 
the  years  go  by. 

(130) 


THE   SOUTHERN   SECTION 


131 


The  soil  of  the  Southern  uplands,  above  the  Fall  Line,  was 
formed  on  the  spot  by  the  decay  of  the  underlying  rocks, 
and  consequently 
\^aries  in  charac  ter 
with  those  rocks. 
Thus  the  fertile 
"red  lands"  of  the 
Piedmont  region 
and  the  limestone 
soils  of  the  Blue 
Grass  districts 
around  Nashville 
and  Lexington 
contrast  sharply 
with  the  adjacent 
sandstone  up- 
lands, which  yield 
but  scanty  re- 
turns to  the  plow. 
.•  The  Southern 
uplands,  where 
slavery  never 
flourished  as  in 
the  lowlands,  are 
predominantly, 
and  in  parts  exclu- 
sively, white  in  population.  For  this  reason,  while  the  Old  South 
was  a  tidewater  South,  with  outlying  plantations  only  on 
the  richest  soils  of  the  upper  country,  the  New  South  is  largely 
an  upland  South,  dwelling  among  the  hills  and  mountains. 

155.  The  Southern  Climate.  It  was  formerly  asserted 
that  white  men  could  not  work  in  the  Southern  fields.  The 
truth  is  that  native  whites  now  grow  a  large  and  increasing 
proportion  of  the  cotton;  Northern  men  raise  much  of  the  rice 
of  Louisiana  and  Texas;  and  Italians  have  displaced  negroes 
on  many  sugar  'plantations,  especially  around  New  Orleans. 

10 


fter  map  issued  by  Biological  Survey,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agricultur 

Fig.  78.     Life  zones  in  North  America. 


132  COMMERCIAL   GEOGFLAPHY 

In  point  of  fact,  the  South  has  .nearly  every  variety  of 
climate.  (Fig.  78.)  This  is  clearly  shown  by  the  vegetation. 
Southern  Florida  is  tropical,  the  Gulf  coast  semi-tropical,  the 
low  plains  warm  temperate,  the  upper  Piedmont  region  cool 
temperate,  while  the  mountains  carry  into  Georgia  the  climate 
of  New  York.  Moreover,  the  storms  of  winter  sweep  down 
from  the  north  unobstructed  to  the  Gulf,  damaging  fruit, 
indeed,  but  giving  to  the  air  a  tonic  quality  which  is  indispen- 
sable to  maintain  the  vigor  of  the  white  race.     (Fig.  56.) 


63^ 

9^ 

9fo 

i9i 

United  States 
17.8  million  gallons 

0 

J-i 

fa 

(Tj 

All  othei-s 
5.2 

Turpentine 

75$^ 

7^ 

6i      6%    5%li 

United  States 
655.3  million  pounds 

•a" 

Belgium 

Germany 

50.9 

Rosin 

Data  from  Year  Books  of  Agriculture,  1912-13 

Fig.  79.     Sources  of  turpentine  and  rosin  entering  international 

commerce.     Totals,  averages  for  five  years:  turpentine, 

2 J. 8  million  gallons;  rosin,  865.8  million  pounds. 

The  rainfall  is  abundant,  except  in  the  Great  Plains  region, 
largely  because  the  heat  of  the  continent  in  summer  causes  an 
indraft  of  air  from  the  sea.  It  is,  however,  less  continuous 
than  in  southern  China.     (Fig.  57.) 

156.  Forest  and  Fishery  Products  of  the  South.  The  South 
everywhere  bore  noble  forests  when  the  white  man  came, 
except  in  the  semi-arid  belt  toward  the  west. 

There  are  three  distinct  belts  of  timber.  On  swampy  lands 
along  the  sea  and  the  rivers,  the  prevailing  species  is  the 
cypress;  on  the  sandy  parts  of  the  coastal  plain  it  is  yellow 
pine.^  Both  of  these  make  excellent  timber.  On  the  Southern 
uplands,  again,  is  found  the  largest  body  of  merchantable 

lA  commercial  name  including  several  distinct  species;  chiefly  the 
long-leaved,  short-leaved,  loblolly,  and  Cuban.  Of  these  the  long- 
leaved   is    the   most   important. 


THE     SOUTHERN    SECTION 


133 


hard  wood  in  the  United  States;  chiefly  oak  and  poplar, 
with  some  chestnut,  cottonwood,  gum,  hickory,  sycamore, 
and  black  walnut — the  last  named  mainly  in  Kentucky. 

The  South  has  now  displaced  the  Great  Lake  states  as  the 
chief  seat  of  the  lumber  industry.  The  principal  market  for 
hard  wood  is  Memphis ;  while  the  chief  lumber  ports  are  New 
Orleans  on  the  Gulf,  and  Newport  News  on  the  Atlantic. 

The  sap  of  the  long-leaved  pine  when  heated  or  distilled 
yields  turpentine  and  rosin, 
used  in  varnishes.  (Fig.  79.) 
Distillation  of  the  wood 
itself  produces  tar;  and  tar 
when  boiled  down  becomes 
pitch.  Another  product 
obtained  from  tar  is  creo- 
sote, employed  as  a  preser- 
vative of  timber.  (Fig.  80.) 
All  of  these  naval  stores 
are  now  produced  most 
extensively  in  Florida  and 
Georgia.  The  principal 
market  in  the  world  for 
naval  stores  is  Savannah; 
Femandina  ranks  second  in 
exports. 

The  Southern  waters 
abound  in  toothsome  fish, 
but  shrimps,  oysters,  and 


Courtesj  of  Forest  fcervi^-e 

Fig.  80.     Xctu  method  of  turpentine 

orcharding  which  does  not  destroy 

the  tree.  Like  the  deep  cuts  or 

"boxes"  fonnerly  used. 


the  huge  green  sea  turtles  of  Florida  are  of  more  commercial 
importance.  Still  more  valuable  is  the  Florida  sponge  fishery 
around  Key  West,  though  the  production  is  far  from  meeting 
the  American  demand. 

157.  Live  Stock  in  the  South.  Hogs  are  raised  for  domestic 
use  on  most  plantations.  They  are  in  part  of  the  half-wild 
"razor-back"  variety  and  forage  in  the  woods  for  their  liv- 
ing.    Stock  raising  for  market  is  practically  confined  to  two 


134  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

regions   in   the   South.     One   comprises   the   upland   valleys 
between  the  Blue  Ridge  in  Virginia  and  the  western  lowlands 


Courtesy  of  A.  Clogenson,  Dallas 

Fig.  8i.     The  modern  type  of  Texas  cattle,  feeding  on  alfalfa. 

of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  which  raise  many  cattle,  besides 
light  horses  and  excellent  mules,  notably  in  the  Blue  Grass 
districts  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  The  principal  market 
for  race  horses  in  the  United  States  is  Lexington,  Ky.  The 
second  stock  region  is  the  semi-arid  portions  of  Texas  and 
Oklahoma,  which  furnish  pasturage  for  cattle  (Fig.  8i)  and 
sheep.  The  Texas  ranges  were  formerly  occupied  by  Spanish 
cattle,  with  wide  spreading  horns  and  able  to  run  like  deer; 
but  these  have  now  been  largely  displaced  by  improved  breeds, 
such  as  shorthorns.  Cattle  raising  has,  however,  been  limited 
by  the  presence  of  the  tick,  that  causes  Texas  fever  in  cattle. 
Owing  to  the  danger  of  infection  there  is  a  quarantine  in 
Northern  markets  against  Southern  cattle  until  late  autimm, 
which  seriously  reduces  profits. 

Since  modern  farm  machinery  has  come  into  use,  the  slow- 
going  ox,  once  generally  used  for  farm  work,  has  largely  given 
way  to  the  mule.  This  animal  is  stronger  and  hardier  than 
the  horse,  and  more  at  home  in  warm  countries. 

158.  The  Tobacco  Belt.  In  Virginia,  as  in  New  England, 
the  first  settlers  had  to  learn  from  nature  how  to  thrive  in  the 
climate  and  surroundings  of  the  New  World. 


THE   SOUTHERN   SECTION 


135 


The  first  industries  of  the  South  were  those  of  the  fron- 
tier— timber  products  for  export,  game,  com  planted  in  the 
forest  clearings,  and  stock  running  wild  in  the  forests,  for 
domestic  use.  This  mode  of  life  still  prevails  in  the  moun- 
tain sections,  which  have  been  happily  called  a  "retarded 
frontier."  There  was,  however,  no  market  crop  until  tobacco 
began  to  be  cultivated.  By  1620  tobacco  had  become,  what 
it  remained  for  two  centuries,  almost  the  sole  commercial  crop 
of  Virginia. 

Tobacco  (Fig.  82)  is  still  the  principal  commercial  crop  of 
the  upper  South,  north  of  the  lower  boundary  of  Tennessee, 
and  it  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  the  Gulf  states.  Tobacco 
is,  in  fact,  very  adaptable  as  to  soil  and  climate,  but  each 
district  seems  to  produce  a  distinct  quality.  Thus  a  light  yellow 
variety,  which  has  brought  prosperity  to  the  uplands  of  North 
Carolina,  owes  its  peculiar  value  to  a  thin,  sandy  soil  long 
considered  worthless.  The  United  States  grows  and  exports 
more  tobacco  than  any  other  country.     (Fig.  83.) 

Hemp,  another  warm  temperate  crop,  has  long  been  grown 
in  the  Kentucky  Blue  Grass  region,  especially  around  Danville. 


After  Thirtponth  C'< 

Fig.  82.      The  distnhution  of  the  tobacco  crop. 


136 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


In  other  sections  of  the  country,  this  crop  has  almost  disap- 
peared, because  of  the  lack  of  labor-saving  machinery  for 
separating  the  fiber  from  the  stalk.  Now,  however,  successful 
hemp  brakes  are  coming  into  use,  especially  in  Europe. 


36  fo 

9i 

17% 

6i 

Jfo 

7% 

I/O 

2,<    9fc 

United  States 
960  million  lbs. 

other 

America 

235 

India 

450 

•f  ■§  s 

other 
Asia 
101 

^  Is 

11 

All 

Others 

255 

41% 

Crop 

United  States 
353  million  lbs. 

a 

d 

6 

Dutch  East 

Indies 

157 

Other 

Asia 

66 

Is 

3 
H 

All  others 
150 

Exports 


From  Year  Books  of  Agriculture,  1912-13 


Fig.  83.     Tobacco  industry  of  the  world.      Totals,  averages  for  Jive  years 
{million  lbs.):  crop,  2,6q2;  exports  of  raw  tobacco,  866. 

159.  The  Cotton  Belt.  After  the  invention  of  the  cotton 
gin  (1793)  for  separating  the  seed  from  the  fiber,  cotton 
rapidly  forged  to  the  front  as  the  staple  Southern  crop.' 
Completing  what  tobacco  had  begun,  it  firmly  established  in 


Commercial  cotton  crop  Cotton  exports  Cotton-seed  oil  exports 

Data  from  Year  Books  of  Agriculture,  1912-13,  and  Census  Bulletin,  No.  125 

Fig.  84.     Raw  cotton  and  co'lon-sccd  oil.     Totals, -aveniges  for  five  years: 

commercial  crop,  ig.y  million  bales;  exports,  ij   million 

bales;  cotton-seed  oil  exports,  51. i  million  gallons. 

the   South   the   plantation   system   of    agriculture,   employing 

slave  labor,  and  created  an  aristocratic  type  of  society  based 

on  the  possession  of  land. 

iln  1790,  before  the  gin  was  invented,  the  total  cotton  crop  of  the 
United  States  was  2,000,000  pounds;  in  1800,  it  was  40,000,000  pounds; 
in  1810,  80,000,000  pounds;  in  1820,  the  year  of  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
160  000,000  pounds. 


THE    SOUTHERN    SECTION 


137 


In  the  section  known  to  history  as  the  lower  South,  south  of 
the  southern  Hne  of  Tennessee,  cotton  is  still  King,  exceeding 
in  value  every  other  Southern  crop.  (Fig.  85.)  Cotton  also 
prevails  on  the  lowlands  as  far  north  as  Virginia.  A  long 
summer  with  abundant  moisture  is  necessary  for  cotton  grow- 
ing; and  nearness  to  the  sea  greatly  improves  the  length  and 
fineness  of  the  fiber.  Some  long-fibered  sea  island  cotton 
is  grown  along  the  Atlantic;  but  the  bulk  of  the  American 
cotton  crop  is  short  fibered,  known  commercially  as  "upland." 
The  United  States  is  still  by  far  the  largest  producer  and 
exporter  of  raw  cotton  and  cotton-seed  products.     (Fig.  84.) 


After  U.S.  Censua 


Fig.  85.     The  distribution  of  tlie  cotton  crop. 

The  limitation  on  the  acreage  that  can  be  farmed  in  cotton 
is  the  necessity  of  picking  cotton  by  hand:  that  is,  a  man  can 
cultivate  more  cotton  than  he  can  pick.  If  the  pneumatic 
picking  machine  could  be  perfected  it  would  consequently 
work  a  revolution  not  less  profound  than  that  which  followed 
the  introduction  of  the  cotton  gin.  (Fig.  86.)  Ceasing  to 
be  indispensable  on  the  farms,  the  negroes  would  then  more 
than  ever  drift  to  the  cities,  while  the  large  plantations  would 
be  reestablished  with  modern  machinery  and  white  labor. 


Copyright,  1906,  bj  A.  CIogenBon 


6.     By  'machinery.    The  machine  operates  by  suction  and 

is  run  by  gasoline. 

Fig.  86.     Picking  cotton. 


THE  SOUTHERN  SECTION  139 

1 60.  The  Rice  and  Sugar  Belt.  On  the  low,  hot  coast 
lands  rice  and  sugar  are  the  prevailing  crops. 

Rice  held  a  position  in  South  Carolina  during  colonial 
times  (after  1694)  corresponding  to  tobacco  in  Virginia;  but 
floods,  caused  by  deforestation  in  the  mountains,  have  in  recent 
years  wrought  havoc  in  the  rice  fields  along  the  Atlantic. 

When  rice  culture  spread  to  firm,  well-drained  prairies  in 
eastern  Texas  and  southern  Louisiana,  to  which  water  is  raised 
by  steam  pumps  for  irrigating  purposes,  the  self -binding 
reaper  and  steam  thresher  replaced  the  sickle  and  flail  (1885). 
(Fig.  87.)     Nothing  so  revolutionary  had  happened  in  rice 


Courtesy  of  Nurthw 

Fig.  87.     Finished  rice  threshing  in  Louisiana.     Compare  with  Fig.  204. 

culture  in  6,000  years.  Using  such  machinery,  one  man  pro- 
duces sixty-four  times  as  much  rice  as  a  laborer  in  India. ^ 
As  a  result,  more  than  nine- tenths  of  the  rice  crop  in  the  United 
States  is  now  grown  in  this  district.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
land  in  the  lower  South  which  could  be  easily  irrigated  (3,000,- 
000  acres)  would  yield  five  times  our  present  consumption  of 
rice.  The  development  of  the  industry  is,  however,  retarded 
by  the  charges  of  the  middlemen.  Rice  that  nets  the  farmer 
a  few  cents  per  pound  costs  the  consumer  several  times  as 
much,  becoming  thus  a  luxury.^ 

For  a  century  (since  1795)  sugar  cane  has  been  a  leading 
crop  in  Louisiana.     Though  it  demands  for  success  in  this 

1  American  Economic  Association  Proceedings,  1904. 


140  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

latitude  an  immense  expenditure  of  capital,  the  industry  has 
now  spread  along  the  whole  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  coast, 
though  Louisiana  still  has  by  far  the  largest  output  of  sugar. 

i6i.  Other  Southern  Crops.  Throughout  the  South  corn 
is  the  principal  crop  for  local  consumption,  rivaling  cotton 
in  acreage.  Com  bread  and  pork  are  the  staple  foods  of 
farm  laborers.  Winter  wheat  and  oats  are  also  grown  in 
the  Appalachian  uplands,  and  in  the  "black- waxy"  region  of 
central  Texas  and  Oklahoma,  where  they  divide  the  soil 
with  cotton. 

The  winter  grains  have  a  double  advantage  in  the  South, 
compared  with  com;  they  do  not  require  attention  during  the 
season  when  cotton  must  be  cultivated,  and  they  protect  the 
soil  from  erosion  during  the  winter.  For  this  reason  they  are 
grown  to  some  extent  even  where  their  yield  is  very  light. 

In  many  parts  of  the  South,  especially  in  the  Atlantic 
Coastal  Plain  where  the  Gulf  Stream  flows  close  inshore  and  the 
mountains  fend  off  the  blasts  which  blow  from  the  interior  in 
winter,  early  vegetables  and  sweet  potatoes  are  largely  planted 
for  the  northern  market.  In  the  Piedmont  region  and  the 
Ozarks,  peaches  and  other  tender  fruits  are  also  extensively 
grown  at  moderate  elevations,  especially  in  Georgia;  while 
along  the  mountain  side  runs  a  pippin  (apple)  belt,  rising 
from  1,200  feet  elevation  in  Virginia  to  3,000  in  South  Carolina. 

That  such  perishable  products  can  be  grown  commercially  so 
far  from  the  market  is  due  altogether  to  special  fast  trains  and 
special  cars,  equipped  to  maintain  an  even  temperature,  sum- 
mer or  winter.  But  the  isolated  fanner,  deciding  by  guess  what 
to  plant,  necessarily  suffers  frequent  and  heavy  losses  from 
overstocking  the  market;  and  he  is,  moreover,  always  at  the 
mercy  of  the  middlemen.  This  situation  has  given  rise,  in 
most  of  the  older  fruit  and  trucking  districts,  to  growers' 
cooperative  associations  which  employ  expert  agents  to  over- 
see the  shipment  and  market  the  crops. 

Peanuts  occupy  considerable  land  as  far  west  as  Texas, 
though  Norfollc,  Va.,  is  the  leading  market.     They  yield  an 


142  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

oil  now  extensively  eaten  as  "peanut  butter."  The  pecan 
(a  native  nut),  figs,  and  even  dates  are  increasingly  grown, 
especially  in  Texas. 

Orange  culture  in  Florida  long  since  recovered  from  the 
killing  frosts  of  1895,  while  large  quantities  of  grapefruit  and 
pineapple  are  also  produced.  South  of  Miami,  even  the  cocoa- 
nut,  mango,  and  banana  reach  maturity. 

Successful  experiments  have  been  made  in  the  raising  of 
camphor  trees  in  Florida,  and  of  tea  (Fig.  88)  at  Pinehurst, 
S.  C.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  tea  industry  has  a  great 
future  on  the  warm  and  moist  Atlantic  slope,  which  closely 
reproduces  the  climatic  conditions  of  southern  China. 

162.  Mineral  Products  of  the  South.  Ancient  pits  and 
tunnels  overgrown  by  the  forest  show  that  mica  was  mined 
in  North  Carolina  by  the  Mound  Builders,  and  the  veins  are 
not  yet  exhausted.  The  lead  deposits  of  Virginia  furnished 
bullets  for  both  the  Continental  and  Confederate  armies;  and 
the  gold  fields  of  North  Carolina  and  Georgia  had  their  day  of 
excitement  before  the  rush  to  California  (1849). 

On  the  whole,  however,  the  Atlantic  slope  is  noted  for  the 
variety  rather  than  for  the  value  of  its  mineral  products.  Those 
of  real  commercial  importance  comprise  iron,  along  the  western 
flank  of  the  Blue  Ridge;  copper,  especially  in  eastern  Tennes- 
see; vast  prehistoric-bone  beds,  yielding  phosphate  of  lime, 
which  extend  from  Tennessee  through  the  Carolinas  into 
Florida;  finally,  granite,  slate,  and  marble,  the  last  named 
being  quarried  around  Tate,  Ga.,  and  Knoxville,  Tenn.    Florida 


5dfo 

36% 

7fo 

n< 

United  States 
2.7  million  tons 

Tunis  and  Alg-eria 
2.0 

1-1 

All 

Others 

A 

Data  from  Mineral  Resources,  1912-13 


Fig.  89.     Phosphate-rock  production  of  the  world.     Total,  average 
Jor  five  years,  5.5  million  metric  tons. 

leads  in  the  production  and  export  of  phosphate  (Fig.  89); 
Georgia  ranks  next  to  Vermont  in  the  production  of  marble. 


THE   SOUTHERN   SECTION  I43 

Coal  occurs  east  of  the  Appalachians  only  in  small  beds  of 
late  (Triassic)  origin;  but  to  the  westward  it  underlies  large  areas 
in  the  Allegheny-Cumberland  Plateau,  the  Ozark  region,  and  the 
Gulf  Plain.  With  coal  are  associated  in  places  natural  gas,  pe- 
troleum, and  asphaltum,  which  is  used  for  asphalt  pavements. 
The  most  productive  oil  field  in  the  United  States  is  now  south- 
western Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  Louisiana.     (Fig.  71.) 

In  Louisiana  there  are  beds  of  rock  salt  1,765  feet  thick;  also 
important  deposits  of  sulphur,  which  is  dissolved  by  hot  water 
and  then  raised  by  forcing  hot  air  to  the  bottom  of  the  well. 
By  virtue  of  these  deposits,  the  United  States  now  rivals 
Italy  in  the  production  of  sulphur.     (Fig.  90.) 

63^  28^0  9';'c 


United  States 
800  thousand  tons 

Italy 
357 

All 

slhers 

120 

Data  from  The  Mineral  Industry,  Vol.  XXII,  1913 

Fig.  90.     Sulphur  production  of  the  world.     Total  in  IQ12, 
1,2//'  thousand  metric  tons. 

Finally,  in  western  Texas,  which  touches  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain region,  there  is  a  considerable  output  of  mercury  and 
of  silver.  These  have  given  rise  to  a  smelting  industry  at 
El  Paso,  using  petroleum  as  fuel. 

163.  Manufactures  in  the  South.  The  South  is  still  in  the 
main  a  farming  community;  but  a  rapid  development  of 
manufactures  is  in  progress,  based  on  the  conjunction  of  coal, 
water  power,  and  raw  materials. 

Southern  manufactures  are  mostly  concerned  with  raw  mate- 
rials of  local  origin  on  which  freight  charges  would  be  high  if 
shipped  any  great  distance.  Examples  are:  lumber  along  the 
rivers  which  penetrate  forested  areas,  notably  at  Little  Rock, 
Ark.,  Mobile  and  Montgomery,  Ala.,  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  and 
Wilmington,  N.  C;  phosphate  fertilizers  at  Charleston,  S.  C; 
leather  goods  at  Dallas,  Waco,  and  San  Antonio,  and  packing- 
house products  at  Fort  Worth,  all  near  the  Texas  ranches;  and 
sugar  refining  at  New  Orleans,  in  the  midst  of  the  cane  fields 
which  are  largely  near  the  river. 


144 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Excellent  tanning  materials  are  at  hand  in  the  chestnut 
oak,  producing  tan  colors,  and  in  palmetto  roots.  One  of  the 
centers  of  chestnut-oak  tanneries  is  Louisville,  where  hides 
were  perhaps  obtained  originally  from  Cincinnati  packing 
houses. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton-seed  oil  and  cake  is  carried  on 
at  many  points  in  the  cotton  belt,  notably  at  Memphis,  Tenn., 
and  Houston,  Texas.  The  cake  serves  either  as  a  fertilizer 
or  as  food  for  stock.  (Fig.  47.)  Outside  the  cotton  belt  and 
in  the  uplands,  flour  milling  and  furniture  making  are  impor- 
tant industries,  especially  at  Nashville,  Knoxville,  and  Chatta- 
nooga in  the  Great  Valley,  and  at  Roanoke,  Va.  Flour  is  also 
a  leading  product  at  Fort  Worth,  in  the  Texas  black-waxy 
belt,  where  wheat  is  a  leading  crop. 

The  tobacco  industry  is  largely  localized  in  a  few  districts. 
The  Cuban  district  includes  Key  West  and  Tampa,  where 
Cuban  tobacco  is  landed.  Others  are  in  the  tobacco  belt, 
notably  at  Louisville,  which  is  the  leading  tobacco  market; 
at  Covington  and  Newport  across  the  river  from  Cincinnati; 
at  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  Va. ;  and  at  Winston-Salem 
and  Durham,  N.  C. 

The  two  fundamental  industries,  however,  for  which  the 
South  would  seem  to  have  unique  advantages,  are  cotton  and 

"59^ 


/            Exported 

■,    ._. 

v 

Data  f 

/            Exported 

1-4  South  J-^^^     \ 

vt>-^^          \ 

V"'^  Used  in  the  \ 
\            North         \ 

1890 

/  \  Used  iu  liie  /      \-„^ 
/    \_,.  South      /               ^x, 
/       \°g^          /  Used  in  the 
/           \         /          North 

l'.K)0 

Used  in  the  /       \, 
y      South      /                \^ 
\o„              /Used  in  the 
V'           /        North 

1013 
rom  Census  Bulletin,  No. 

Fig.  91.     Destination   of  cottoyi   crop  of  the    United  States,   showing 
increased    domestic    consumption,    especially    in    the    South. 

iron  manufactures.     Cotton  mills  were  first  established  along 
the  Fall  Line,  where  water  power  and  in  some  cases  water 


THE  SOUTHERN  SECTION 


145 


transportation  were  available,  as  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  Augusta 
and  Macon,  Ga.  The  cotton  industry  has  now  spread  to  other 
cities  such  as  Raleigh  and  Charlotte,  N.  C,  and  Atlanta,  Ga., 
which  are  not  distant  from  the  coal  fields  and  can  draw  their 
labor  from  the  sturdy  white  population  of  the  uplands.  So  great 
are  the  advantages  in  the  South  that  the  proportion  of  cotton 
consumed  in  Southern  mills  has  largely  increased.  (Fig.  91.) 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  now  rank  next 
in  cotton  manu- 
factures to  Massa- 
chusetts. 

The  iron  indus- 
try is  established  at 
a  number  of  points 
in  the  Allegheny- 
Cumberland  coal 
field,  notably  at 
Wheeling,  W.  Va., 
and  Birmingham, 
Ala.  Now  that 
phosphorus,  which 
is  rather  abundant 
in  Alabama  ores, 
can  be  removed  by  p   .     ,  r  f  ,.   ,,. ,  ■• « r    « 

-^  CourteBj  of  E.  F.  Burfhata,  L.  S.  Geo.  Survey 

the    open-hearth       ^*   Clinton  iron  ore  Limestone  and  dolomite 

basic     process  Fig.  92.     Alabama  coal  and  iron  region. 

(§119),  and  some  architects  prefer  open-hearth  steel  for 
structural  purposes,  the  Birmingham  district,  where  iron, 
coal,  and  limestone  lie  side  by  side,  has  become  the  Pitts- 
burgh of  the  South.     (Fig.  92.) 

164.  Commercial  Centers  of  the  South  Atlantic  Region. 
The  Appalachians  rear  a  higher  and  more  continuous  front 
south  of  the  Potomac,  being  crossed  by  only  four  railroads  in 
over  500  miles.  These  roads,  moreover,  have  difficult  grades. 
The  two  slopes  of  the  Appalachians,  therefore,  face  commer- 
cially in  opposite  directions. 


146  COMMERCIA  L     GEOGRA  PH  Y 

On  the  Atlantic  slope,  one  trunk  line  of  railway  roughly 
parallel  with  the  coast  traverses  the  plain  just  below  the  Fall 
Line,  and  another  skirts  the  Blue  Ridge,  both  crossing 
the  Potomac  at  Washington.  A  third  line  follows  the  Great 
Valley  west  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  which  offers  another  natural 
route  from  Philadelphia  and  New  York  to  New  Orleans. 

Three  of  the  railways  crossing  the  mountains  converge  at 
the  mouth  of  the  James  River.  Newport  News  and  Norfolk 
are  consequently  not  only  the  natural  outlets  of  Virginia  and 
parts  of  North  Carolina,  but  they  are  likewise  the  Atlantic 
seaports  of  Cincinnati  and  Louisville.  They  are  also  impor- 
tant in  the  coal  trade.  The  fourth  railway  across  the 
Appalachians,  along  the  French  Broad  River,  connects 
(since  1880)  Knoxville  and  Charleston. 

Atlanta,  however,  standing  opposite  the  first  easy  passage- 
way from  the  coast  to  the  Great  Valley,  is  well  named  the 
"Gate  City  of  the  South,"  being  at  the  crossing  of  the  main 
roads  which  traverse,  and  those  which  parallel,  the  mountains. 

Knoxville  and  Chattanooga  in  the  Great  Valley  are  in  turn 
the  focal  points  of  lines  from  the  west  and  north  which  enter 
through  Cumbertand  Gap,  the  Tennessee  Water  Gap  at 
Chattanooga,  and  other  depressions  in  the  mountain  rim. 

South  of  the  Chesapeake  the  land  dips  very  gently  beneath 
the  sea  and  the  coast  is  lined  with  sand  bars.  The  river  mouths, 
drowned  by  a  slight  sinking  of  the  land,  form  practically 
the  only  approaches  to  the  land,  and  even  these  need 
frequent  dredging  to  admit  large  vessels.  The  rivers  are, 
moreover,  shorter  and  shallower  than  farther  north,  because 
the  eastern  range  of  the  Appalachians  here  carries  the  main 
water-parting.  Conditions  are,  therefore,  not  favorable  for 
water  transportation;  and  several  important  towns  are  found 
not  on  the  sea  coast,  but  along  the  Fall  Line  at  the  inner  mar- 
gin of  the  Coastal  Plain.  However,  the  barrier  beaches,  the 
Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal,  and  two  c&nals  connecting 
Chesapeake  Bay  with  Albemarle  Sound,  provide  sheltered 
coastwise    navigation    for    small    vessels   from    Philadelphia 


THE  SOUTHERN  SECTION 


147 


almost  to  Wilmington,  N.  C.     Another  stretch  of  sheltered 
waters  extends  from  Savannah,  Ga.,  to  Fernandina,  Fla. 

In  the  region  south  of  Cape  Hatteras,  the  leading  seaport  is 
Savannah,  located  where  the  broad  curve  of  the  shore  carries 
the  ocean  farthest  into  the  land,  and  where  the  trunk  line 
through  Chattanooga  and  Atlanta  reaches  the  sea.  Where 
the  railways 'meet,  the  shipping  gathers  also. 

165.  Commercial  Routes  and  Centers  of  the  Gulf  Region. 
Thomas  Jefferson  declared  any  foreign  nation  holding 
the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  to  be 
"the  natural  and 
necessary  enemy  of 
the  United  States ;" 
for  it  is  the  natural 
outlet  by  water  of 
nearly  half  the 
country.  The  lower 
Mississippi,  being 
ice  free  and  of 
ample  depth,  is  still 
a  great  artery  of 
commerce.  Its 
tributaries  penetra- 
ting the  Allegheny 
coal  field  are  also  of 
commercial  value. 
Especially  is  this 
true  of  the  Tennes- 
see, now  navigable 
to  Knoxville,  Tenn. 


Lights 


Fig.  93.  IK'cw  Orleans  Harbor,  showing  the  loca- 
tion with  reference  to   Lake  Pontchartrain 
(the  original  port  of  the  city),  the  delta, 
and  the  routes  of  canals  and  railways. 

The  eastward  drift  of  traffic  by  rail  in  the  North,  after  the 
Civil  War,  tended  to  rob  even  the  Mississippi  of  its  old  impor- 
tance, and  to  check  the  growth  of  all  the  Gulf  ports.  Never- 
theless the  Mississippi  Valley  affording  a  broad  and  level  field 
for  railway  construction,  is  clearly  the  line  of  least  resistance 


148 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


from  the  South  Central  region  to  tidewater;  and  in  recent 
years  the  Gulf  ports  have  all  advanced  with  rapid  strides. 

New  Orleans,  commanding  the  southern  gateway  of  the 
continent,  is  naturally  the  metropolis  of  the  South  and  is  now 
the  third  port  of  the  United  States,  measured  by  the  value  of 
its  exports  and  imports.     (Fig.  93.) 

Galveston,  lying  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf,  is  the  commercial 
outlet  of  Texas  and  the  Southwest  as  far  as  Denver.  Though 
built  on  a  sand  bar  and  overwhelmed  by  the  sea  in  1900, 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood.  N.  Y. 


Fig.  94.     Florida  East  Coast  Railway  bridge  at  Key  West,  Florida. 
Galveston  has  raised  its  foundations  and  built  a  sea   wall 
against  future  assaults  of  the  waves.     It  now  leads  in  the  ex- 
port of  cotton,  and  few  ports  in  the  world  are  more  secure  of 
a  great  future. 

In  like  manner  Mobile  and  Pcnsacola  are  the  natural  outlets 
on  the  Gulf  of  the  coal  and  iron  districts  around  Birming- 
ham, and,  in  fact,  of  the  eastern  Mississippi  Valley  as  far  as 
Cincinnati.  Mobile  in  particular  has  profited  largely  from 
the  increase  of  commxcrce  with  Cuba  and  Central  America, 
importing  tropical  fruits  and  woods,  sisal  hemp,  and  even 


THE   SOUTHERN   SECTION  1 49 

Cuban  manganese  for  the  steel  works  along  the  Great  Lakes. 
It  is  at  the  head  of  tidewater  navigation  in  the  eastern,  as 
Galveston  is  in  the  western,  part  of  the  Gulf;  and  commerce 
in  heavy  commodities  seeks  inlying  ports. 

Tampa  stands  on  the  only  deep-water  harbor  for  hundreds 
of  miles,  and  near  large  deposits  of  phosphate.  It  also  handles 
considerable  Cuban  traffic  for  the  Atlantic  slope. 

Key  West  will  no  doubt  acquire  a  large  mail  and  passenger 
traffic,  which  seeks  outlying  ports,  now  that  the  railway  is 
finished  thither  over  the  line  of  coral  islands  (191 2).  Key 
West  is  the  most  southerly  city  in  the  United  States,  but  a 
step  from  Havana.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  farthest  outpost  of  the 
United  States  toward  the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  and 
the  Panama  Canal.     (Fig.  94.) 

A  bridge  across  a  great  river  attracts  commerce  much  like 
a  gap  in  the  mountains,  since  a  train  ferry  is  always  a  slow  and 
unsatisfactory  substitute.  For  this  reason  Memphis,  standing 
on  a  bluff  which  the  river  closely  approaches,  and  which  serves 
as  an  abutment  for  the  southernmost  bridge  on  the  Mississippi, 
has  become  a  great  railway  center. 

Other  points  where  railways  converge  are  Louisville,  at  the 
Falls  of  the  Ohio,  which  forms  one  gateway  toM'ard  the  north ; 
and  El  Paso,  at  the  gap  cut  by  the  Rio  Grande  in  the  Rockies, 
vrhich  is  the  southern  gateway  toward  the  Pacific.  Louisville 
is  the  second  city  of  the  South.  For  many  business  purposes, 
moreover,  it  includes  New  Albany  and  Jeffersonville  across 
the  Oliio. 

The  Panama  Canal  is  giving  new  life  to  every  industry  and 
every  harbor  in  the  South  —  above  all  to  New  Orleans  —  and 
likewise  to  every  city  on  the  Mississippi  from  St.  Paul  to  the 
Gulf.  Much  commerce  that  formerly  moved  east  or  west  is 
going  south;  still  more  commerce  will  be  created  by  the  fact 
of  cheap  transportation  to  the  west  coast  of  America  and  to 
the  Orient.  The  South  now  lies  on  one  of  the  main  world 
thoroughfares. 


XII^THE   NORTH   CENTRAL   SECTION 

1 66.  The  People  of  the  North  Central  Section.  The  North 
Central  section,  comprising  the  states  north  of  the  Ohio  and 
west  to  Colorado,  is  to-day  the  heart  of  the  Republic. 
(Fig.  64.)  The  population,  originally  drawn  from  the  best  stock 
of  the  older  states,  has  been  augmented  from  many  sources. 
Despite  this  diversity  of  origin,  the  uniformity  of  the  land 
and  the  wide  reach  and  unbroken  horizon  of  the  prairies  have 
not  failed  to  leave  their  impress  on  the  people.  Nowhere  else 
are  the  democratic  traditions  of  American  life  so  well  preserved. 

167.  The  Climate  of  the  North  Central  Section.  The 
climate  is  of  the  extreme  continental  type,  with  hot  summers 
that  rapidly  mature  the  crops,  and  cold  winters  that  not  only 
pulverize  the  soil,  but  also  maintain  the  physical  vitality  of 
the  race.      (Fig.  56.) 

As  one  goes  west  beyond  the  line  of  twenty  inches  rainfall, 
the  country  is  increasingly  given  over  to  pastoral  pursuits 
except  where  irrigation  is  possible.  (Fig.  57.)  In  recent  years, 
however,  some  progress  has  been  made  in  developing  a  type 
of  farming  suited  to  semi-arid  conditions.  (§196.)  In  this 
semi-arid  belt  a  decrease  of  a  few  inches  more  in  the  rainfall 
would  cause  even  the  grass  to  disappear,  and  with  it  the 
herds,  leaving  only  desert  solitudes. 

168.  The  Soils  of  the  North  Central  Section.  North  of  the 
Ohio  and  Missouri,  which  probably  cut  their  valleys  when 
flowing  along  the  edges  of  tlic  great  ice  sheet, 1  most  of  the  soil 
is  of  glacial  origin  (§136).  It  is  consequently  rough  and  rocky 
where  the  front  of  the  glacier  long  stood,  coarse  and  gravelly 
where  strong  currents  flowed,  and  composed  of  fine  clay  or  of 
loam  where  the  currents  were  checked.  Thus  the  clay  soil 
of  the  Red  River  Valley,  which  grows  splendid  wheat,  was 
deposited  as  sediment  in  glacial  Lake  Agassiz. 

'Mill,  International  Geography,  p.  744. 

(150) 


THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  SECTION  151 

As  in  New  England,  there  are  large  tracts  toward  the  north 
better  suited  for  forests  than  farming.  As  a  whole,  however, 
the  section  has  a  larger  proportion  of  fertile  land  than  any- 
other  in  the  United  States.  Moreover,  the  glacial  soil,  con- 
taining rock  waste  of  many  kinds  and  numerous  pebbles 
which  furnish  plant  food  as  they  slowly  decay,  is  not  so 
easily  exhausted  by  tillage  as  residual  soils.  For  fifty  years 
this  part  of  the  United  States  has  therefore  been  the  granary 
of  the  modern,  as  Egypt  was  of  the  ancient,  world. 

169.  Furs  and  Fish.  In  the  forested  regions  along  the 
lakes,  just  as  in  northern  Maine  and  in  the  southern  Appala- 
chians, we  find  a  "retarded  frontier" — that  is,  a  section  where 
frontier  conditions  and  modes  of  life  still  prevail.  Settlers  are, 
however,  rapidly  pressing  on,  clearing  away  the  wreck  left  by 
the  axe  of  the  lumberman,  and  with  infinite  labor  opening 
farms  in  the  wilderness.  The  present  generation  will  witness 
the  final  disappearance  of  frontier  conditions  wherever  the 
soil  is  fit  for  farming. 

In  the  meantime  the  trapping  of  fur-bearing  animals, 
that  characteristic  frontier  industry,  is  still  carried  on  within 
these  forested  districts.  St.  Louis  and  St.  Paul,  both  early 
stations  for  the  fur  trade,  are  still  important  primary  markets 
for  furs. 

The  fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  Mississippi  River 
system  support  a  considerable  population  living  on  rocky  and 
sandy  shores  that  afford  no  other  means  of  support.  The  most 
important  lake  species  are  whitefish,  salmon  trout,  and  stur- 
geon. Refrigeration  enables  the  fish  to  be  consumed  fresh 
in  all  parts  of  the  section. 

170.  The  Forests  of  the  North  Central  Section.  In  the 
eastern  and  southern  part  of  the  North  Central  region,  some 
scattered  hard-wood  groves  remain,  consisting  chiefly  of  oak. 
In  addition  there  is  some  ash,  which  commonly  serves  for 
parts  of  tools;  basswood,  used  for  small  wooden  wares;  birch, 
employed  for  furniture;  and  maple,  used  for  floors.  St.  Louis 
and  Cincinnati  are  important  markets  for  hard-wood  lumber. 


Courtesy  of  Northwestern  Mllle 

a.     Ancient    method — Arabs    in    Algeria    rutting    grain    with    sickles. 


Courtesy  of  International  ITarvrater  Co. 

b.      Firs!  Amrrlcan  iivf^mvenicnt — the  grain  cradle. 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Co. 

c.     S('CO)id    American    improvement — l/ie    self-binding    reaper. 


Courtesy  of  Parlin  &  Orendorff,  Canton,  III, 

d.     Third  American  iinprovement — horseless  agriculture,  reaping,  plowing, 
and  rolling  at  one  operation. 
Fig.  95.     Evolution  of  grain  harvesting. 


THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  SECTION 


153 


From  central  Michigan  north  and  west  to  the  Red  River 
Valley  there  were  originally  magnificent  forests  of  white 
and  Norway  pine,  with  some  hemlock,  spruce,  and  other 
varieties.  In  this  section,  as  in  Maine,  the  frost  and  snow  of 
winter,  which  transform  marsh  and  stream  into  ideal  roadways, 
have  made  lumbering  both  cheap  and  rapid.  For  this  very 
reason,  in  part,  the  forests  are  now  approaching  exhaustion. 

171.  Grain  Crops  in  the  North  Central  Section.  To  the 
early  settlers,  fresh  from  the  rocky  hillsides  of  New  England, 
these  broad  fertile  prairies  seemed  indeed  the  Promised  Land. 


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After  U.  S.  Census 


Fig.  96.  Yield  of  all  grains  per  square  mile. 
Grains  flourished  here  as  they  had  never  done  on  the  eastern 
uplands.  The  level  prairies,  moreover,  afforded  a  fair  field  for 
the  great  inventions  in  the  line  of  farm  machinery,  such  as  the 
mower  (1834),  reaper,  and  thresher,  which  have  revolutionized 
agriculture  not  less  suddenly  and  completely  than  manufac- 
tures have  been  transformed  by  steam  and  electricity. 
(Fig.  95.)  Vergil  would  have  found  little  new  on  an 
American  farm  a  century  ago;  to-day  there  would  be  little 
that  he  could  understand.  Grain  thus  became  for  the  North 
Central  region  very  nearly  what  cotton  was  in  the  South. 


154  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  several  kinds  of  grain  are  grown  more  or  less  in  all 
parts  of  the  section.  (Fig.  96.)  In  the  southern  half,  however, 
south  of  Milwaukee,  the  leading  crops  are  corn,  which  needs 
a  hot  summer;  and  winter  wheat,  which,^  being  sown  in  the 
fall,  needs  a  moderate  winter.  Both  of  these  have  been  grown 
farther  and  farther  north  in  recent  years.  Yet  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  section  the  great  staple  is  spring  wheat.  Consider- 
able crops  of  barley  and  rye  are  also  grown,  rye  especially  on 
sandy  soils.     Oats  are  a  common  crop  throughout  the  section. 

Owing  chiefly  to  the  grain  fields  of  the  North  Central  section, 
the  United  States  produces  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  corn 
of  the  world.  It  likewise  grows  more  wheat  and  oats  than 
any  other  country.     (Fig.  43.) 

172.  Other  Crops  of  the  North  Central  Section.  Since 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  tobacco  culture  has  been  making  its 
way  from  the  lowlands  into  the  uplands,  and  from  the  south 
43% 10%  15%  11%  15% 


Argentina 
116  million  bushels 

United 
States 

43 

Roumania 
41 

Russia 
30 

All  others 
40 

Data  from  Year  Books  of  Agriculture,  1912-13 

Fig.  97.     Flaxseed  crop  of  the  world.     Total,  average  for  five 
years,  103.7  million  bushels. 

toward  the  north.  (Fig.  82.)  This  migration  is  the  result  of 
more  intensive  cultivation.  Tobacco  is  now  sometimes  grown 
in  fields  covered  with  vast  tents  of  cheesecloth,  which  equalize 
the  temperature,  check  evaporation,  and  thus  produce  a 
thinner  and  finer  leaf  for  wrappers. 

On  rich  soils,  sugar  beets  are  increasingly  grown.  In  fact, 
there  is  something  suggesting  a  sugar-beet  belt  across  the 
continent  and  down  the  Pacific  .slope.  This  belt  traverses  New 
York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  the  largest  produc- 
tion east  of  Colorado  being  in  Michigan.  While  overlapping  corn 
somewhat,  the  areas  of  beet  culture  lie  mostly  north  of  the  true 
corn  belt,  because  beets  require  to  be  cultivated  at  the  same  time 
as  com.  They  moreover  call  for  so  much  hand  labor  that  a 
man  can  care  for  a  much  larger  acreage  of  corn  than  of  beets. 


THE  NORTH   CENTRAL   SECTION  155 

Another  important  crop  in  the  same  zone  of  mixed  farming, 
which  extends  from  New  York  through  Michigan  and  Wisconsin 
along  the  northern  margin  of  the  corn  belt,  is  field  beans. 
These  are  planted,  harvested,  and  threshed  much  like  wheat. 
In  the  production  of  beans,  Michigan  holds  first  place. 

A  third  crop  in  the  same  zone,  north  of  the  corn  belt,  is 
potatoes.  This  is  indeed  the  staple  crop  on  the  tracts  of 
sandy  soil  left  by  the  great  glacier.  Michigan  and  Wisconsin 
thus  have  the  largest  crops  of  potatoes. 

In  western  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  especially  where 
the  soil  is  new  and  strong,  flax  is  extensively  grown  for  the 
seed  (Fig.  97),  which  yields  linseed  oil.  This  is  indispensable 
in  paints,  as  it  dries  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

Temperate  fruits  are  grown  for  local  use  in  all  the  states. 
Along  the  southern  and  eastern  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
which  tend  to  lessen  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  fruit 
growing  for  market  prevails.  The  Great  Lakes  region  ranks 
next  to  California  in  the  production  of  fruits. 

Certain  districts  in  western  Michigan,  especially  around 
Kalamazoo,  which  were  settled  largely  by  Dutch,  have  become 
famous  for  celery  and  other  vegetables.  In  the  same  districts 
herbs  are  grown  for  distillation  of  essential  oils,  especially  pep- 
permint, of  which  Michigan  is  the  largest  producer  in  America. 

173.  Stock  Raising  in  the  North  Central  Section.  As  early 
as  1805  stock  began  to  be  driven  across  the  mountains  to 
Baltimore.  With  the  consolidation  of  the  railroads  into  large 
systems,  after  1850,  driving  to  market  gave  way  to  shipment 
by  rail.  Stock  raising  then  became  more  than  ever  a  frontier 
industry,  because  free  range  was  available  there,  and  as  settle- 
ments advanced,  and  the  land  rose  in  value,  the  herds  could 
be  driven  on  in  search  of  fresh  pastures. 

In  Ohio  and  Michigan,  once  the  gi'eat  wool-producing 
region,  sheep  are  still  of  importance,  though  mutton  rather 
than  wool  is  now  the  main  product.  Rich  soil  in  this  section 
is,  however,  too  valuable  to  carry  sheep.  Moreover,  the  losses 
from  dogs  are  serious,  but  it  does  not  pay  to  hire  shepherds 


156  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

to  protect  a  small  flock.  On  the  plains  west  of  the  agricul- 
tural zone,  cattle  and  sheep  are  still  raised  on  wild  grasses, 
and  often  shipped  into  the  com  belt  to  be  fattened.  The 
grazing  industry  is  thus  quite  distinct  from  the  feeding 
industry.  Hogs  are  also  raised  in  the  corn  belt,  in  immense 
numbers;  and  likewise  as  a  by-product  of  the  dairy,  being  fed 
on  skim  milk.  Corn  is  in  fact  chiefly  fed  to  stock  and  marketed 
"on  the  hoof."  It  commands  a  higher  price  in  the  form  of 
meat,  and  is  also  condensed,  thereby  saving  two-thirds  of  the 
freight.  Moreover,  live  stock  is  of  great  value  in  maintaining 
the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

174.  Dairy  Products  in  the  North  Central  Section.  The 
dairy  industry  has  made  rapid  progress  in  recent  years,  partly 
because  the  soil  generally  shows  the  effect  of  continuous 
cropping  in  grain.  The  leading  dairy  state  in  the  Middle  West 
at  the  Thirteenth  Census  was  Wisconsin,  which  led  in  butter 
and  cheese.  Dairying  is  the  most  promising  industry  on  the 
cut-over  pine  lands  in  the  lake  states,  where  grasses  and  roots 
flourish  better  than  grains.  Its  development,  however,  depends 
quite  as  much  on  market  conditions  as  on  geographical  con- 
ditions. ,  Thus  dairying  has  made  more  rapid  progress  in 
Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  where  the  farmers  have  organized 
cooperative  creameries  on  the  Danish  model,  than  it  has  in 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  portions  of  Iowa,  where  centralizcrs 
(great  private  creameries)  control  the  situation  and  pay  the 
producer  seven  to  eight  cents  less  per  pound  for  butter  fat  than 
is  paid  where  cooperative  creameries  prevail.^ 

175.  The  Location  of  Manufactures.  The  center  of  general 
manufactures  in  the  United  States  follows,  although  with 
lagging  step,  the  westward  march  of  the  center  of  population. 
It  is  now  located  in  Ohio,  which  enjoys,  together  with  Indiana 
and  Illinois,  the  double  advantage  of  abundant  fuel  and  water 
transportation  both  by  lake  and  river.     (Fig.  98.) 

This  migration  has  occurred  because  industries  naturally 
prosper  near  raw  materials  and  large  markets  (§70). 
'Report  of  Chief  of  Bureau  of  .Animal  Industry,  1907. 


The  north  central  section 


157 


176.  Mannfacttires  of  Timber.  The  sawing  of  pine  liimber, 
or  at  least  the  preparation  of  secondary  lumber  products, 
such  as  lath,  sash,  and  doors,  is  still  earned  on  to  some  extent  at 
numerous  cities  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  connecting  waters, 
especially  Duluth,  Minn.;  Superior  and  Oshkosh,  Wis.;  and 
Saginaw,  Bay  City,  and  Muskegon,  Mich.  These  industries 
are  also  found  along  the  upper  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries, 
which  originally  brought  down  the  logs  at  slight  cost:  as  at 
La  Crosse,  Wis.;  Minneapolis  and  Winona,  Minn;  Dubuque, 
Burlington,  and  Clinton,  Iowa;  and  at  the  "Tri-City,"  Daven- 
port-Rock Island-Moline.     Comparatively,  however,  the  water 


_  Center  of  populati ,-- 
X  Center  0/ agriculture 

O  Center  of  manufactitri 


After  Thirteenth  Census 


Fig.   98. 


The  westward   migration   of  centers  of  population,  agriculture, 
and  manufactures  {no  data  for  1910), 


ways  have  decreased  in  importance  for  logging  purposes,  being 
superseded  by  light  logging  railways  and  small  mills  nearer  the 
timber  as  the  forests  have  receded  from  the  rivers. 

The  rivers  descending  from  the  upland,  north  and  west  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  generate  much  water  power.  This,  together 
with  the  abundance  of  pulp  wood  along  the  rivers,  has  given 
rise  to  a  large  manufacture  of  paper,  especially  in  the  district 
adjacent  to  Green  Bay,  Wis.  Other  localities  having  special 
facihties  for  producing  wood  pulp  are  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  where 
a  power  canal  has  been  built;  the  St.  Louis  River,  near  Duluth; 
and  the  Rainv  River,  at  International  Falls,  Minn. 


158  COMMERCIAL    GEOGfLXPHY 

Fiimiture,  made  chiefly  of  hard  wood,  is  manufactured  at 
Chicago  and  other  cities,  notably  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  where 
the  river  served  originally  to  carry  timber  and  drive  the  machin- 
ery. Much  of  the  lumber  now  comes  by  rail  and  most  of  the 
mills  employ  steam;  but  Grand  Rapids  remains  the  most 
specialized  center  of  furniture  manufacture  because  of  business 
experience,  and  the  presence  of  skilled  labor.  Rockford,  111., 
situated  much  like  Grand  Rapids,  and  Sheboygan,  Wis.,  on 
Lake  Michigan,  also  have  large  furniture  factories. 

The  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements  and  road 
vehicles  is  also  dependent  on  hard- wood  forests.  It  has  in 
a  measure  followed  the  westward  movement  of  agriculture 
because  implements  and  wagons  occupy  much  car  space  and 
are  therefore  expensive  to  ship. 

The  center  of  the  implement  industry  is  now  at  Chicago, 
and  the  center  of  the  vehicle  industry  is  at  South  Bend,  Ind. ; 
both  conveniently  located  with  reference  to  the  Central  Plain 
and  having  access  to  hard-wood  timber  and  to  iron.  Other 
important  centers  are  Moline,  111;  Springfield,  Ohio;  St.  Louis, 
Mo. ;  Jackson,  Mich. ;  Racine,  Wis. ;  and  Peoria,  111. 

Similar  considerations  caused  the  rapid  development  of  the 
automobile  industry  along  the  Great  Lakes,  especially  at 
Detroit,  Mich. 

177.  Meat  Packing.  In  this  country  meat  packing  began 
at  Cincinnati  (18 18).  With  the  use  (since  1S68,  and  especially 
since  about  1880)  of  ice  and  more  recently  of  compressed  air 
to  chill  fresh  meat,  the  packing  industry  has  migrated  toward 
the  cattle  pastures  and  cornfields.  Live  stock  occupies  more 
room,  needs  more  care,  and  is  subject  to  greater  losses  in 
transit  than  are  refrigerated  meats. 

The  packing  industry  has  been  concentrated  in  a  compara- 
tively few  great  estabHshments,  which  use  the  entire  animal, 
producing  a  multitude  of  valuable  by-products.^ 

1  Including  hides,  soups,  gelatine,  and  beef  tea;  oleomargarine,  lard, 
candles,  and  soap;  glue,  buttons,  and  knife  handles.  In  addition,  bristles 
serve  for  brushes;  animal  charcoal  for  sugar  refaiing;  hair  for  upholstering, 
filling  mattresses,  and  mixing  with  mortar. 


THE   NORTH    CENTRAL    SECTION  159 

The  present  center  of  meat  packing  is  Chicago,  the  greatest 
live-stock  market  in  the  world,  owing  to  its  central  location  in 
the  com  belt  and  its  transportation  facilities.  Hammond, 
just  over  the  Indiana  line,  has  also  important  packing 
plants.  The  advanced  stations  of  the  packing  industry  are  on 
the  Missouri  at  Kansas  City,  Kans.;  South  Omaha,  Nebr. ; 
St.  Joseph,  Mo.;  and  Sioux  City,  Iowa;  and  on  the  upper  Mis- 
sisissippi  at  South  St.  Paul.  Other  important  seats  of  the  in- 
dustry are  Indianapolis,  St.  Louis,  and  Cincinnati,  all  in  the 
corn  belt. 

178.  Grain  Products.  Starch,  syrup,  and  other  corn  prod- 
ucts are  extensively  manufactured  in  the  Chicago  district. 
(Fig.  45.)  So  much  corn,  indeed,  is  fed  to  stock  or  used  in 
manufactures  that  relatively  little  is  exported.  (Figs  130,  134, 
and  190.) 

The  prosperity  of  the  Northwest  began  (1870)  with  the 
system  of  successive  millings  of  wheat  which,  by  removing 
the  dark-colored  bran,  suddenly  made  spring  wheat  the  most 
valuable  for  bread  making.^ 

Minneapolis,  located  in  the  spring-wheat  belt  at  the  Falls  of 
St.  Anthony,  is  by  far  the  greatest  flour-milling  city  in  the 
world.  Flour  milling  is  likewise  one  of  the  leading  industries, 
measured  by  value  of  products,  in  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  and 
Toledo,  Ohio,  both  in  wheat-growing  regions  and  originally 
favored  by  water  transportation;  as  well  as  in  Indianapolis  and 
numerous  smaller  cities  which  are  the  business  centers  of  rich 
agricultural  districts.  Such  are  Evansville,  Ind.;  Decatur 
and  Bloomington,  111.;  Des  Moines  and  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa; 
Topeka  and  Wichita,  Kans. 

1  Spring  wheat  is  especially  rich  in  gluten  which  is  advantageous  in 
bread  making.  But  so  long  as  the  stones  were  set  close  together  and 
the  grain  reduced  to  flour  at  one  grinding,  the  bran,  which  is  coarser 
in  spring  wheat,  remained  with  the  flour,  discolored  it,  and  by  absorbing 
moisture  caused  it  to  spoil.  The  new  process  consisted  in  setting  the 
stones  farther  apart  at  first  and  removing  the  bran  in  large  pieces  before 
reducing  the  rest  to  flour.     The  germ,  being  oily,  is  also  removed. 

The  roller  or  "patent"  process  differs  chiefly  in  that  buhrstones  aic 
replaced  by  rollers,  but  the  principle  of  successive  m.illings  is  retained- 


l60  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Associated  with  flour  milling  is  the  crushing  of  flax  seed  for 
oil,  in  which  Minneapolis  has  the  same  preeminence  as  in  flour. 

179.  Other  Manufactures.  The  principal  tanning  center 
in  the  United  States  is  Milwaukee,  conveniently  located  to 
obtain  hides  from  Chicago  as  well  as  from  the  local  packing 
plants,  and  tanbark  from  the  hemlock  forests  of  Wisconsin. 
The  making  of  leather  goods  is,  however,  widely  distributed. 
St.  Louis  ranked  after  Lynn  and  Brockton,  in  1909,  in  the 
manufacture  of  shoes,  while  Cincinnati  stood  first  in  harness 
and  saddlery. 

The  manufacture  of  rubber  goods  is  an  immense  industry 
at  Akron,  Ohio.  This  is  no  doubt  due  to  an  early  start  and 
acquired  skill,  though  the  development  of  the  city  itself  can 
be  traced  to  its  location  on  the  summit  level  of  the  Ohio  Canal, 
and  the  presence  of  water  power. 

Ready-made  clothing  is  manufactured  in  all  the  large  cities, 
as  in  the  East  (§144),  and  especially  in  Chicago. 

Before  1920  the  brewing  of  beer  flourished  in  all  large  cen- 
ters of  population,  St.  Louis  and  Milwaukee  being  especially 
prominent  in  the  industry.  But  the  distilling  of  strong  liquors, 
was  concentrated  in  a  few  cities  in  the  heart  of  the  corn  belt, 
chiefly  Peoria,  111.,  and  Terre  Haute,  Ind.  The  breweries  have 
largely  been  taken  over  for  various  kinds  of  manufactures,  but 
most  of  the  distilleries  arc  now  producing  industrial  alcohol. 

180.  Mineral  Fuels.  Large  "pools"  of  natural  gas  and 
petroleum  have  been  tapped  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  southern  Illinois, 
and  Kansas.  (Fig.  71.)  The  oil  is  piped  to  Cleveland  and 
Toledo,  Ohio,  and  still  more  extensively  to  Whiting,  Ind.,  for 
refining.  Pipe  lines  also  extend  from  the  mid-continent  field 
both  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  to  tidewater  on  the  Atlantic. 

The  coal  fields  of  the  North  Central  section  embrace  nearly 
half  the  United  States  coal  lands.  The  coal  in  the  plains,  hav- 
ing been  less  compressed  than  in  the  mountains,  is  in  large  part 
semi-bituminous;  while  toward  the  west  it  is  of  late  origin,  and 
therefore  lignitic.  For  these  reasons  the  plains  depend  on  the 
Appalachian  field  for  the  best  bituminous  coals.      (Fig.  70.) 


THE  NORTH  CENTRAL   SECTION 


l6l 


i8i.    Lead  and  Zinc  in  the  North  Central  Section.    Lead 

and  zinc  are  found  in  two  districts,  which  produce  more 
than  a  third  of  the  lead  and  zinc  mined  in  the  United  States. 
One  district  around  Dubuque,  Iowa,  was  opened  by  JuHen 
Dubuque  (1788),  from  whom  the  city  received  its  name.  In 
this  district,  including  also  parts  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  zinc 
is  now  the  chief  product.  The  other,  on  the  flanks  of  the  Ozarks, 
especially  around  Joplin,  Mo.,  was  also  worked  at  an  early 
date  (1798).  There  is  even  a  tradition  of  Missouri  lead  having 
been  used  in  the  Revolution.  The  Joplin  district  now  has 
much  the  larger  output.  In  recent  years  many  lead  and  zinc 
smelters  have  been  erected  in  the  gas  and  oil  belt  of  south- 
eastern Kansas. 

182.  Gold  and  Copper  in  the  North  Central  Section. 
Gold  is  extensively  mined  in  the  Black  Hills,  an  outlying 
part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  chiefly  in  South  Dakota. 

On  Keweenaw  Point,  which  juts  out  into  Lake  Superior,  is  a 
layer  of  porous  volcanic  rock  containing  flakes  and  sometimes 
huge  masses  of  pure  copper.  (Fig.  99.)     The  metal  is  extracted 


Data  from  Geological  Survey 

Fig.  99.     Lake  Superior  iron  and  copper  districts. 


a.     Alining  iron  ore  with  steam  shovel,  Alountuin  Iron  Mine. 


CojiTTipht.  r.«':,  by  Crandall  and  Fletcher,  Dulntb 

b.     Ore  dock  at  Allouez,  Wis.     Cars  run  on  top  and  dump  the  ore  into 

pockets,  whence  it  runs  by  gravity  into  vessels,  through 

the  long  pipes  shown  in  the  picture. 

Fig.  ioo.     Modern  ntelhods  of  handling  Lake  Superior  iron  ore. 


THE  NORTH   CENTRAL  SECTION 


163 


by  mining  and  crushing  the  rock.  These  deposits  rendered 
Michigan  for  many  years  (after  1844)  the  chief  source  ot 
domestic  copper. 

183.  Iron  Ore  in  the  North  Central  Section.  The  iron 
ranges  about  Lake  Superior  are  the  remnants  of  mountains 
which  in  remote  geological  times  were  probably  as  high  as 
the  Rockies.  The  iron  once  diffused  through  them  has  been 
deposited  by  percolating  waters  in  fabulously  rich  ore  beds. 

The  Superior 
iron  ores  contain 
few  impurities,  and 
run  as  high  as 
seventy  per  cent 
metallic  iron.  They 
can  be  mined  in 
places,  especially 
on  the  Mesabi 
Range,  by  steam 
shovels.  (Figs.  100 
and  1 01.)  After  the 
opening  of  the 
Sault  Ste.  Marie 
Canal  (1855)  these 
ores  became  easily 
accessible  to  water 
transportation. 
Now  as  a  result  the 
Superior  ranges  ^ 
furnish  more  than 
four-fifths  of  our  domestic  iron  ore,  and  far  exceed  in  output 
either  Great  Britain  or  France.  In  fact,  Minnesota  alone 
commonly  mines  more  iron  ore  in  a  year  than  any  forei<T;n 
nation. 

^The  Superior  iron  ranges  were  opened  as  follows:  Marquette  (Alich.), 
1854;  Menominee  (Mich,  and  Wis.),  1872;  Penokee-Gogebic  (Midi,  ami 
Wis.),  1884;  Vermilion  (Minn.),  1884;  Mesabi  (Minn.),  1890;  Michipicoten 
(Canada),  1900;  Cayuna  (Minn.),  1905.     (Fig.  99.) 


CopTTight,  1906,  bj  KejMone  View  Co.,  N.  T. 

Fig.  10  r.     Clam  shell  scoop  in  hold   of  vessel 
taking  a  12-ton  bite.     The  scoop  is  then 
swung  out  and  dumped  on  dock  or  into 
waiting  cars. 


l64  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

184.  Manufactures  of  Iron  and  Steel.  Owing  to  the  lack 
of  coal  near  the  Superior  iron  ranges,  the  ore  is  mostly  shipped 
to  the  south  shore  of  the  lakes,  or  even  some  distance  inland 
from  that  shore,  where  it  meets  the  coke  from  Connellsville 
and  West  Virginia :  for  example,  at  Cleveland,  Youngstown,  and 
Columbus,  Ohio,  in  the  Erie  district;  and  at  South  Chicago, 
Joliet,  and  Gary,  the  new  steel  city,  adjacent  to  Lake  Michigan. 
This  iron-ore  traffic  has  also  built  up  a  row  of  ports  along  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  notably  Ashtabula,  Conneaut,  and 
Lorain.  Now,  however,  two-thirds  of  a  ton  of  coke  (in  place 
of  six  tons  as  formerly)  suffices  in  niodcrn  furnaces  to  smelt  a 
ton  of  ore.  As  a  result,  the  coal  is  sometimes  shipped,  being 
coked  in  by-product  ovens  near  the  steel  works  in  order  to 
utilize  the  gas.  Certainly  the  recent  establishment  of  a  com- 
plete steel  plant  on  the  St.  Louis  River  near  Dululh  shows 
that  the  margin  of  profit  in  shipping  the  ore  to  the  coke,  rather 
than  the  coke  or  coal  to  the  ore,  is  getting  narrow  and  may 
soon  disappear. 

The  manufacture  of  machinery  and  of  miscellaneous  iron 
and  steel  wares  is  widely  distributed,  being  perhaps  mosL 
important  in  cities  having  water  transportation,  such  as 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  Detroit,  Toledo,  Cleveland,  and  Cincin- 
nati; also  Davenport  and  Quincy,  on  the  Mississippi.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  iron  works  at  Hamilton  near  Cincinnati,  and 
at  Aurora  near  Chicago,  are  favored  by  lower  ground  rents. 
This  advantage  is  more  and  more  attracting  manufactures  to 
suburban  cities. 

Cash  registers  are  a'  specialty  at  Dayton,  and  ornamental 
iron  work  at  Canton,  Ohio,  both  on  the  edge  of  the  Pittsburgh- 
Cleveland  iron-snlelting  district.  The  principal  watch  facto- 
ries in  the  Middle  West  are  at  Elgin,  111. 

Steel  shipbuilding  is  an  important  industry  at  the  principal 
lake  cities;  as  is  the  manufacture  of  cars  and  other  railway 
equipment  at  railway  centers,  notably  Chicago,  St.  Louis  and 
East  St.  Louis,  St.  Paul,  Council  Bluffs,  Fort  Wayne,  Ind., 
and  Springfield,  111. 


THE   NORTH  CENTRAL  SECTION  165 

185.  Other  Mineral  Products.  Vast  beds  of  gypsum, 
associated  in  places  with  rock  salt,  extend  from  Texas  through 
Kansas  into  Iowa,  and  reappear  again  in  Michigan.  These 
were  presumably  left  behind  by  the  drying'  up  of  some  ancient 
sea.  Water  is  pumped  through  the  beds  and  then  evaporated, 
coal  being  here  used  in  place  of  solar  heat  as  in  dry  climates. 
The  abundance  of  salt  is  one  cause  that  has  favored  the  growth 
of  a  large  chemical  industry  at  Detroit. 

Ohio,  possessing  an  abundance  of  clay  and  coal,  leads  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  finer  clay  products.  East  Liverpool 
and  Cincinnati  compete  with  Trenton,  N.  J.,  in  pottery,  while 
ZanesvilLe  is  noted  for  art  tiling  and  pressed  brick. 

Important  glass  and  tin-plate  industries  have  grown  up  on 
the  Ohio-Indiana  gas  field,  especially  at  Muncie  and  Anderson, 
Ind.     Muncie,  indeed,  rivals  Pittsburgh  in  glass  blowing. 

Other  mineral  manufactures  are  grindstones,  made  of  Berea 
grit,  in  Ohio;  and  Portland  cement,  manufactured  in  the  region 
adjacent  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Ohio.     (Fig.  73.) 

186.  Water  Ways  of  the  North  Central  Section.  Within 
the  memory  of  men  still  living,  most  of  this  region  was  a 
virgin  wilderness;  probably  never  before  was  it  given  to  any 
man  to  behold  such  a  transformation.  Rapid  development  has 
been  favored  by  the  navigable  rivers  and  lakes,  the  level  surface 
equally  favorable  for  canal  and  railway  construction,  and  above 
all  by  the  use  of  steam.  Thomas  Jefferson,  in  1803,  thought  it 
would  be  a  thousand  years  before  the  region  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi could  be  fully  settled.  He  was  right,  reckoning  as  he  did 
without  steam  or  electricity. 

After  the  launching  of  the  first  steamboat  on  the  Ohio 
(18 11),  steamboats  soon  made  their  way  on  to  all  the  navi- 
gable rivers.  A  generation  later  the  coming  of  railways  from 
the  East  to  the  Mississippi  (1S54)  and  to  the  Missouri  (1S59) 
drew  traffic  eastward  and  checked  the  growth  of  river  cities, 
except  those  which  became  railway  centers. 

The  upper  Mississippi  still  floats  large  quantities  of  logs, 
though  few  compared  to  ten  years  ago;  the  Ohio  carries  great 


i66 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


fleets  of  barges  loaded  with  coal;  while  the  Missouri,  having  for 
most  of  its  course  no  commodity  to  transport  which  cannot  as 
well  go  by  rail,  is  practically  deserted.  The  heaviest  traffic  is 
on  the  Ohio.  (Fig,  102.)  The  steamboat  "Sprague"  has  taken 
70,000  tons  of  coal  (sufficient  to  load  some  fifteen  miles  of 
freight  cars)  to  New  Orleans  in  one  tow,  at  a  cost  of  3.2  mills 
per  ton  per  mile. 

The  Mississippi  system,  embracing  about  one-third  of  the 


Courtesy  of  C  ini  innati  Industrial  Bureau 


Fig.  102.     Fleet  of  barges  carryiiig  coal  down  the  Ohio. 

mileage  of  navigable  rivers  in  the  United  States,  is  connected  by 
canal  with  the  Great  Lakes  along  four  routes,  following  the 
portages  of  the  early  French  explorers  and  fur  traders.  These 
canals  connect :  (i)  the  Wisconsin  and  Fox  rivers ;  (2)  the  Illinois 
and  Chicago  rivers;  (3)  the  Ohio  River  with  Lake  Erie  at  Toledo 
and  Cleveland.  (Fig.  59.)  There  is  also  a  canal  recently  com- 
pleted by  the  Federal  Gfovemment  connecting  the  Illinois  River 
with  the  Mississippi  at  Rock  Island.  (Fig.  62.)  Most  of  these 
canals  will  have  to  be  either  deepened  or  abandoned  as  they 


IHE  NORTH  CENTRAL  SECTIOiV  167 

are  much  too  shallow  (foiir  to  seven  feet)  to  compete  with 
railways. 

The  state  of  Ohio,  indeed,  has  already  authorized  the 
deepening  to  twelve  feet  of  the  Ohio  Canal  from  Cleveland  to 
the  Muskingum  River,  which  is  to  be  improved  through  to  the 
Ohio  by  the  Federal  Government.  A  private  corporation  has 
also  undertaken  a  ship  canal  from  Pittsburgh  to  Lake  Erie, 
so  that  coal  and  iron  may  go  through  without  transhipment. 

The  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  (twenty-four  feet  deep), 
paralleling  part  of  the  way  the  earlier  and  smaller  Illinois 
and  Michigan  Canal,  is  doubtless  the  beginning  of  a  deep- 
water  connection  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  project  of 
deepening  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  rivers  so  as  to  afford  a 
fourteen-foot  channel  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  is 
already  a  live  issue  and  will  certainly  command  still  stronger 
support  after  the  effects  of  the  Panama  Canal  begin  to  be  felt. 

The  Great  Lakes,  however,  are  far  and  away  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  commerce  of  this  region,  forming  a 
superb  water  way  over  a  thousand  miles  into  the  very  heart 
of  the  continent,  bearing  in  a  year  one-third  as  much  freight 
as  all  the  railways  in  the  United  States  and  at  about  one- 
tenth  the  cost.^  A  single  vessel  in  1908  carried  from  Duluth 
to  Buffalo  422,000  bushels  of  grain,  equivalent  at  fourteen 
bushels  to  the  acre  to  the  crop  from  about  fifty  square  miles 
of  wheat  fields.  The  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  (Fig.  103),  con- 
necting lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  carries  a  tonnage  three 
times  greater  than  the  Suez  Canal.  Cargoes  go  in  bulk, 
unbroken,  from  Duluth  and  Chicago  to  Buffalo;  by  using  the 
Welland  Canal  (or  the  enlarged  Erie  Canal,  when  open),  they 
may  even  reach  the  sea. 

187.    Commercial  Centers  of  the  North  Central  Section. 

The  level  surface,  high  average  fertility,  and  relatively  dense 

population  of  the  Central  Plain  have  caused  it  to  be  covered 

with  a  close-meshed  net  of  railways  (Fig.  127)  especially  south 

^In  1904  the  average  freight  rate  per  ton  per  mile  on  the  Great  Lakes 
was  .81  mill;  on  the  railways  it  was  7.8  miUs. 


i68 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


of  the  Great  Lakes.  This  condition  permits  commerce  to 
follow  as  a  rule  the  shortest  routes.  Each  city  is  thus  a  com- 
mercial center  for  a  considerable  district.  Some,  however, 
are  located  "in  the  very  throat  of  the  converging  lines  of 
commerce." 

This  is  preeminently  the  case  with  Chicago,  at  the  south- 
western end  of  the  Great  Lakes  route,  where  all  railways  from 
the  West  and  Northwest  of  necessity  converge  in  order  to  pass 


Fig.  103.     The  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal.     Vessels  at  left  are  being  let 

down  jroin  the  level  of  Lake  Superior  to  the  level  of  Lake  Huron 

by  gradual  lowering  of  water  between  two  sets  of  gates. 

around  Lake  Michigan.  This  location,  which  made  Chicago 
the  greatest  railway  center  in  the  world,  is  the  one  great 
advantage  possessed  by  Chicago  over  Milwaukee.  More  than 
any  other  city,  Chicago  seems  to  embody  the  very  spirit  of  the 
prairies;  for  there  things  are  done  on  a  truly  gigantic  scale. 

But  for  the  Canadian  boundary,  which  turns  commerce 
from  the  natural  line  of  least  resistance,  Duluth-Superior,  at 
the  northwestern  end  of  the  Great  Lakes  route,  would  be  a 
second  Chicago,  controlling  the  trade  of  all  western  Canada. 


THE  NORTH  CENTRAL  SECTION  169 

Canada  extends  nearly  as  far  south  as  Chicago;  but  the 
Great  Lakes  bar  admission  by  rail  from  the  West  except  in  three 
places.  At  Sault  Ste.  Marie  a  bridge  forms  the  connecting 
link  between  the  northwestern  states  and  Montreal.  Again, 
the  narrow  waters  between  lakes  Huron  and  Erie  are  tunneled 
at  Port  Huron  for  a  line  from  Chicago  direct  to  Toronto. 
Finally,  another  tunnel  at  Detroit  opens  the  shortest  railway 
route  from  Chicago  to  Buffalo.  Detroit,  situated  on  the  most 
frequented  strait  in  the  world,  where  goods  for  the  southern 
portion  -of  Michigan  are  landed,  is  thus  in  addition  the  gate- 
way from  the  West  to  southern  Canada,  and  one  of  the 
gateways  to  New  York. 

St.  Louis  was  located  by  Laclede  (1764)  as  a  center  for  the 
fur  trade,  on  a  commanding  bluff  near  the  mouths  of  the 
Illinois  and  the  Missouri.  This  convergence  of  river  valleys 
in  the  midst  of  the  Central  Plain  has  made  St.  Louis  a  great 
commercial  center  both  by  river  and  rail.  Cincinnati  occupies 
a  somewhat  similar  position  with  reference  to  the  Ohio  and 
its  tributaries.  St.  Louis  and  Cincinnati,  together  with 
Louisville,  are  the  principal  gateways  toward  the  South. 

In  like  manner,  Kansas  City  and  Omaha  owe  their  develop- 
ment to  the  convergence  of  river  valleys,  affording  easy  routes 
for  railways;  while  the  Twin  Cities — Minneapolis  and  St. 
Paul — grew  up,  the  one  because  of  water  power,  the  other 
at  the  head  of  ordinary  navigation  on  the  Mississippi.  These 
are  the  gate  cities  toward  the  West.  At  each  of  these 
centers  the  railways  converge ;  and  from  it  they  again  diverge 
into  the  territory  beyond. 


XIII— THE    WESTERN    SECTION 

i88.  "The  Winning  of  the  West."  Nations,  like  rivers, 
strive  ever  to  reach  the  sea.  The  United  States  would  have 
been  permanently  crippled  had  any  strong  foreign  power 
retained  its  hold  upon  the  western  bank  of  the  Mississippi. 

For  this  reason,  it  was  impossible  that  the  northern  prov- 
inces of  Mexico  should  permanently  bar  the  American  advance 
toward  the  Pacific.  (Fig.  124.)  No  matter  how  much  we 
may  theorize  about  it, nothing  can  in  the  long  run  avail  to 
protect  rich  lands,  sparsely  peopled  by  ignorant  and  unpro- 
gressive  populations,  from  occupation  by  more  intelligent 
and  energetic  races. 

189.  "The  Land  of  Little  Rain."  From  the  beginning  of 
the  Great  Plains  (2,000  feet  elevation),  approximately  along 
the  looth  meridian,  to  the  snowy  crest  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
a  distance  of  some  1,200  miles,  stretches  "the  land  of  little 
rain."  Only  the  higher  ranges  there  condense  enough  moisture 
to  support  forests.  Throughout  most  of  this  vast  region,  land 
alone  is  worthless,  but  water  is  priceless;  whoever  controls 
a  spring  or  flowing  well  (Fig.  104),  or  a  stream  fed  by  the 
mountain  snows,  is  indeed  lord  of  all  he  surveys. 

Toward  the  southwest,  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  the 
descending  air  currents  (§52)  and  the  more  rapid  evaporation 
due  to  the  greater  heat  produce  some  patches  of  true  desert. 

Toward  the  north,  on  the  other  hand,  lower  temperature 
and  stronger  west  winds  produce  a  heavier  rainfall.  There, 
too,  the  Columbia  Gap  admits  the  moisture-laden  winds  as 
far  as  the  lofty  Bitterroot  Range,  thus  helping  to  water  the 
splendid  wheat  district  over  rich  lava  soils  about  Spokane. 

In  spite  of  the  great  elevation,  even  the  valleys  being  6,000 
to  8,000  feet  above  sea  level,  the  region  between  the  Rockies 
and  the  Sierra  Nevada  enjoys  a  surprisingly  mild  climate, 
because  the  sun  shines  the  year  round  from  an  almost  cloud- 
less sky. 

(170) 


The  western  section 


171 


190.  The  Pacific  Slope.  The  western  slope,  lying  open 
to  the  Pacific,  has  an  oceanic  climate,  comparatively  warm  in 
winter  and  cool  in  summer.  Los  Angeles  in  July  is  not  so 
warm  as  New  York;  Seattle 
in  January  is  warmer  than 
Richmond,  Va. 

Southern  California, 
"facing  the  sea  and  the 
sun"  (since  there  the  Coast 
Ranges  trend  nearly  east 
and  west) ,  has  a  subtropical 
climate  w^ith  almost  rain- 
less summers,  like  Algeria 
and  southern  Spain  (§52). 
Irrigation  is  usually  needed 
south  of  San  Francisco, 
and  prevails  behind  the 
Coast  Ranges  even  farther 
north. 

In  contrast  to  most  of 
California,  the  Pacific  slope 
north  of  Mount  Shasta  is  a 
humid  district,  the  rainfall 
increasing  rapidly  toward 
the  north.  Here,  however, 
as  in  California,  summer  is 
the  dry  season,  winter  the 
rainy  season;  because  the 
colder  the  land,  the  more 
it  chills  the  warm  winds  from  the  Pacific.  Here  Is  found  the 
true  "new  England"  of  America,  where  soil  and  climate  most 
nearly  reproduce  old  England. 

191.  Stock  Raising  in  the  West.  During  the  three 
centuries  of  Spanish  dominion,  the  few  Spanish  ranchers  in 
California  and  New  Mexico  dreamed  away  their  days  amid 
the    most    glorious    scenery    and    sunshine    in    the   world. 


U.  S.  Geological  Survey 

Fig.  104.  Artesian  well  at  Woonsocket, 

S.  D.,  throwing  stream  ninety-seven 

feet  high. 


173 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Here,  if  ever,  the  pastoral  Arcadia  of  the  poets  was  realized. 
Why  toil  and  sweat  to  raise  crops  or  dig  gold  when  their 
herds  supplied  every  rustic  luxury  ?  So  the  Mexicans  reasoned ; 
not  so  the  Americans. 

The  pastoral  industry  has,  nevertheless,  continued  to  develop 
in  the  upland  valleys  along  the  Pacific;  while  in  the  vast 
region  between  the  Missouri  River  and  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Range,  stock  raising  (Fig.  105)  followed  hard  upon  the  heels 
of  the  hunter  and  trapper.     These  lofty  plateaus  are  the  true 

stock  country,  furnishing 
most  of  the  young  cattle 
shipped  into  the  corn  belt 
and  having  by  far  the 
largest  clip  of  wool  in  the 
United  States.  (Fig.  106.) 
Half-wild  horses  are  also 
raised  on  the  plains;  like- 
wise asses  and  mules  in  the 
mountains  where  they  are 
indispensable  as  pack 
animals,  being  sure-footed, 
able  to  live  on  little,  and 
to  stand  much  hard  usage. 
The  westward  migration 
of  sheep  raising  has  injured 
the  cattle  ranges,  since 
sheep  crop  the  grass  so  close  to  the  roots  that  cattle  can  not 
graze  after  them.  Moreover,  the  homestead  unit  of  160  acres 
is  too  small  for  stock  farming;  consequently  as  homesteaders 
have  pressed  on  westward,  building  their  shacks  by  springs 
and  streams  which  before  served  as  watering  places,  cattle 
raising  has  decreased.  Finally,  the  stockmen,  grazing  their 
herds  on  public  land,  have  crowded  more  animals  on  it  than 
the  grass  could  permanently  support.  Already  large  tracts  have 
been  transformed  into  deserts  of  wind-blown  sand,  thus  caus- 
ing a  material  decline  in  the  grazing  industry.     Many  believe 


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Fig.  105. 


After  Year  Book  of  Agriculture,  1908 

Stock  ranges  of  the  west. 


Courtes;  of  geological  Burvirj 

a.     Windmill  and  reservoir  for  watering  cattle  on  the  high  plains. 


b.     Sheep  grazing  in  the  arid  country  near  Powder  River. 
Fig.  io6.     The  grazing  industry. 


174 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


that  this  decline  has  also  been  hastened  by  a  combination  of 
packers,  resulting  in  low  prices  to  stockmen,  high  prices  to  the 
public,  and  large  net  profits  for  the  packers. 

192.  Other  Animal  Industries.  The  dairy,  poultry,  and 
bee-keeping  industries  made  marked  progress  on  the  Pacific 
slope  during    the    last    twenty    years.      The    leading  dairy 

districts  are  the 
Willamette  Valley 
and  northern  Cali- 
fornia, where  large 
cities  are  at  hand 
and  where  the  land 
had  begun  to  lose 
fertility  from  being 
cropped  too  contin- 
.uously  in  wheat. 
San  Francisco  is 
surrounded  by  the 
greatest  poultry 
district  in  the  world. 
Fruit  and  bees, 
moreover,  thrive 
together.  Ostrich 
farming  has  also 
become  a  prosper- 
ous industry  in 
some  parts  of  Ari- 
zona and  southern 
California. 

193.  The  Forests  of  the  West.  The  scattered  yellow- 
pine  forests  on  the  Rocky  Mountains  ha\^e  furnished  much 
timber  for  the  mines ;  but  their  exhaustion  is  at  hand  unless  still 
larger  forest  reserves  arc  established  and  effectively  protected 
from  sheep  and  goats,  which  destroy  the  young  growth. 

Such  protection  is  especially  important  because  the  climate 
is  apT)arcntly  growing  drier.     Beach  marks  on  the  mountains 


Courtesy  of  Maxwell  and  Mudse 

Fig.  107.     Flume  for  conveying  timber  out  of 

the  mountains.     It  is  flooded  when  logs 

are  w  be  moved. 


THE     WESTERN    SECTION 


ns 


show  that  Great  Salt  Lake  once  stood  a  thousand  feet  higher 
than  at  present.  The  groves  of  Sequoia  Gigantea^  in  Cali- 
fornia— the  most  majestic  trees  in  the  world,  approaching 
400  feet  in  height,  some  of  which  were  3,000  years  old  at  the 
birth  of  Christ — are  also  a  legacy  from  a  moister  climate, 
being  found  in  some  districts  now  too  dry  to  reproduce  forests. 

The  northern 
Pacific  slope  con- 
tains the  largest 
body  of  standing 
coniferous  woods  in 
the  United  States, 
and  the  most  valu- 
able on  account  of 
the  enormous  size 
and  the  splendid 
quality  of  the  trees. 
Nowhere  else  are 
modern  methods 
employed  so  effec- 
tively in  lumbering 
operations.  (Fig. 
107.)  Redwood 
occupies  a  narrow 
strip  along  the  coast 
of  California,  from 
San  Francisco 
north.  Farther 
inland  in  California,  and  also  in  southern  Oregon,  the  prevail- 
ing species  are  the  western  yellow  pine  and  the  sugar  pine.  In 
the  moist  Puget  Sound  region,  the  red  or  Douglas  fir  pre- 
dominates, mingled  with  cedar,  which  is  employed  for  shingles. 

194.  Fisheries  of  the  West.  San  Francisco  has  succeeded 
New  Bedford  as  the  headquarters  of  most  of  the  whaling 
vessels  still  afloat,  which  hunt  in  far  Northern  waters.  The 
Oregon  and  Puget  Sound  waters  swarm  in  season  with  salmon, 


From  Forestry  Map  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fig.    108.      Irrigated  lands  in  the  West. 


THE   WESTERN  SECTION 


177 


which  are  taken  by  nets,  traps,  and  wheels  driven  by  the 
current.  Fish  hatcheries  are  now  necessary  to  maintain  the 
supply.  Canned  salmon  is  the  principal  fishery  product 
exported  from  the  United  States.  (Fig.  131.)  The  lead- 
ing canning  centers  are  Astoria,  Ore.,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia,  and  Bellingham  and  Seattle,  Wash. 

195.  Irrigation  in  the  West.  Though  the  West  as  a  whole 
is  rugged  in  surface,  there  are  vast  tracts  of  fertile  soil,  espe- 
cially in  the  broad  valleys  between  the  Sierra  and  the  Coast 
Ranges,  also  on  the  upper  Columbia,  and  in  numerous  inter- 
montane  basins  such  as  the  Big  Horn  and  Uncompahgre 
valleys,  North,  Middle,  and  South  parks,  San  Luis  Valley, 
and  Salt  Lake  Basin.     The  soil  is  exceptionally  fertile,  because 


Fig.  1 10. 


Courtesy  of  Southern  Pacific  Ry. 

Irrigating  a  field,  Pajaro  Valley,  California. 


not  leached  of  its  soluble  parts  by  rain ;  but  throughout  much  of 
the  section,  water  must  be  brought  to  the  land  or  there  will  be 
no  harvest.  (Figs,  no,  in.)  For  this  reason  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment has  set  aside  the  proceeds  of  land  sales  in  arid  and  semi- 
arid  states  as  an  irrigation  fund,  and  has  established  an  eflficient 
Reclamation  Service  to  carry  on  the  work.  (Figs.  108,  109.) 

It  is  estimated  that  over  50,000,000  acres  in  all,  situated 
in  valleys  and  along  the  foot  of  mountains,  can  be  irrigated 
and  thus  transformed  from  desert  to  garden.  The  census 
showed  13.7  million  acres  actually  under  irrigation  in  1 909 ;  while 
3 1 . 1  million  acres  were  covered  by  irrigation  projects.  (Fig.  in.) 


THE     WESTERN     SECTION  179 

The  current  of  rapid  streams,  and  the  power  secured  by 
the  erection  of  gigantic  reservoir  dams,  can  even  be  used  to 
lift  water  onto  the  uplands  Irrigation  will  therefore  mean 
the  creation  of  many  densely-peopled  farming  communities 
separated  by  arid  regions.  It  will  stimulate  mining  by  pro- 
viding cheaper  food.  Finally,  it  will  cause  the  growth  of 
manufacturing  and  commercial  cities,  wherever  mechanical 
power  and  transportation  facilities  are  most  available. 

The  possibilities  of  irrigation  are  especially  interesting  along 
the  Colorado — the  American  Nile — which  in  its  lower  course 
flows  practically  on  a  ridge  through  a  region  very  like  Egypt 
in  climate,  and  lacking  only  water  to  rival  it  in  fertility. 
This  district  includes  the  Imperial  Valley  of  California, 
filled  to  unknown  depths'with  fine  river-borne  soil.^    (Fig-  112.) 

196.  Dry  Fanning  in  the  West.  East  of  the  Rockies,  most 
of  the  rain  falls  in  summer,  owing  to  the  draft  of  air  up  the 
Mississippi  Valley  at  that  season  (§155).  In  recent  years,  it  has 
therefore  been  found  possible  to  grow  certain  drought-resistant 
crops  in  the  Great  Plains,  without  irrigation.  Such  are 
Kafir  corn,  a  kind  of  millet  (sorghum);  milo,  another  millet 
grown  in  the  dry  Southwest;  and  especially  durum  wheat, 
which  has  already  become  an  article  of  export  to  the  Medi- 
terranean countries  and  forms  a  considerable  part  of  the 
total  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States.      (Fig.  114.) 

West  of  the, Rockies  the  rain,  coming  from  the  Pacific,  falls 
chiefly  in  winter.  Much  of  the  soil,  moreover,  is  underlaid 
by  clay  which  is  almost  impervious  to  water.  These  two 
facts  are  taken  advantage  of  in  a  new  type  of  dry  farming 
which  seems  capable  of  great  development.      (Fig.  113.) 

In  some  places,  the  streams  which  descend  the  hillsides  in 
winter  are  diverted  onto  the  fields,  where  the  water  is  stored 
in  the  sub-soil.     This    practice  of  winter  irrigation   enables 

'The  Imperial  Valley  is  the  end  of  the  Gulf  of  California  which 
^^as  cut  off  by  the  delta  of  the  Colorado,  advancing  from  the  east ; 
and  then  dried  up.  leaving  salt  (Fig.  122)  deposits  in  the  lowest  part, 
called  Salton  Sink.     This  is  287  feet  below  sea  level. 

In  I  go  5  the  Colorado  at  flood  cut  a  channel  into  Salton  Sink,  again 
creating  an  inland  sea. 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


crops  to  be  grown  yearly.  Where  such  streams  are  not  avail- 
able, it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  crop  every  other  year  by  storing 
the  rains  of  two  winters  in  the  soil  and  keeping  the  surface 
covered  during  the  intervening  summer  with  a  dust-mulch  to 


LOWEIR   COLORADO  RIVER 

SHOWING   IRRIGABLE  LANDS 


UNITED  STATES  a  MEXICO 


C  ALlrORNIA 


-^ 


Fig.  112.     Relief  map  of  the  lower  Colorado  Valley. 

check  evaporation.  This  method,  which  would  not  be  pos- 
sible if  the  rain  fell  in  summer  (for  it  would  then  at  once 
evaporate)  enables  wheat  and  some  other  staple  crops  to  be 
grown  with  ten  or  twelve  inches  of  rain  a  year. 


THE   WESTERN  SECTION 


Dept.  Agriculture,  Div.  of  Statistics,  Bui.  XX. 

Fig.   113.     Dry-laud  areas. 


197.    Agricultural  Products  of  the  West.    The  leading  croi>s 

of  the  West  are  grain  and  hay.     The  principal  cereals  grown 

are  wheat,  barley,  and  oats. 

In  California,  barley  takes  the 

place  of  corn  (which  needs  a 

moister  climate)  as  a  food  for 

stock.     The   grain   fields  are 

mostly  in  the  broad  valleys 

of  the   Pacific  slope  and  in 

the    Columbia  basin  around 

Spokane.    Owing  to  the  dry 

summers   the  grain   in  most 

districts  dries  on  the  stalk  so 

thoroughly  that  it  can  be  cut, 

threshed,  and  sacked  by  one 

machine  (Fig.  115),  thus  econo- 
mizing labor  and  leaving  the 

straw  in  the  fields  to  fertilize 

the  soil.    Vegetables  are  also  important,  especially  potatoes 

and  sugar  beets,  besides  lima  beans  in  southern  California. 

Heavy  freight  charges 
on  bulky  commodities 
have,  however,  discour- 
aged grain  farming.  In 
Oregon  small  areas  of  the 
best  soil  are  occupied  by 
hop  yards  (Fig.  116);  and 
on  all  parts  of  the  Pacific 
slope  the  farmers  have 
turned  their  attention 
largely  to  fruit  (Fig.  117), 
since  the  invention  of 
the  refrigerator  car.  In 
the    aggregate    value    of 

T,  r.     7     J  r       •         r>    ,.  •  ,       her  fruit  crop,  California 

Pig.  114.     Dry-land  jarrmtig.     Districts  ^' 

producing  durum  wheat,  is  unrivaled.     Temperate 

9 


.  ,    ^ :'  ..■•^^.^*X^'W«^  ■ 

a.     Plowing. 


rs- 

-    .      "■ '  -  ""■'    -'". '      ' 

,.,. 

^..■■^  ^.^ 

^_. 

At 

■  '-^B^ 

pisest^.  * 

.      _ 

b.     Planting  wheat. 


Courtesy  of  Holt  Mfg.  Oo. 

c.     Combined  Jiarresiers  which  cut,  thresh,  and  sack  the  grain, 

in  one  operation. 

Fig.  115.     Farming  by  steam  on  the  Pacific  slope. 


THE  WESTERN  SECTION  1 83 

orchard  fruits,  such  as  peaches,  apples,  and  plums  (prunes), 
even  exceed  in  value  the  subtropical  fruits,  such  as  oranges, 
lemons,  oUves,  and  figs.  Grapes,  yielding  raisins  and  wine,  rank 
next  to  oranges.  (Fig.  iii.)  Nut  growing,  especially  almond 
and  walnut  culture,  is  also  a  distinct  industry.  (Fig.  117.) 

The  date  palm  has  been  successfully  introduced  in  the 
desert  regions  of  southern  California  and  Arizona.  (Fig.  118.) 
It  needs  an  average  simimer  temperature  of  at  least  70°  F., 
and  one  month  of  80°  F.  The  drier  the  air  the  better  the  date 
palm  thrives,  yet  its  roots  must  have  abundant  moisture.  It 
is  thus  emphatically  the  tree  of  the  desert  oasis.     (Fig.  21.) 


Fig.  116.     Irrigated  hop  yard  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

198.  Metallic  Products  of  the  West.  The  fierce  rush  over 
seas  and  deserts  which  followed  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
CaHfomia,  the  growth  of  cities  almost  over  night,  and  the 
peopling  of  a  state  within  three  years,  are  matters  of  history. 

Gold  is  still  the  principal  metallic  product  of  the  Pacific 
slope.  (Fig.  119.)  The  gold-bearing  gravels,  forming  a  belt 
twenty  to  sixty  miles  wide  along  the  western  foothills  of 
the    Sierra,    were    originally   panned    by    hand.     This   form 


n.     Tent  in  position  for  fumigation  with  poisonous  gas 
/(»  kill  insects  in  fruit  trees. 


fourteaj  of  Bureau  uf  Plant  Industrj 


b      Almond  harvest. 
Fio.  117,     Tlie  fruit  industry  in  California. 


THE   WESTERN  SECTION  I85 

of  placer  mining,  requiring  no  machinery,  was  the  poor  man's 
opportunity.  Later  came  hydrauHc  mining,  which  was  finally 
checked  by  law  because  it  filled  up  rivers  and  spread  sand 
over  agricultural  lands  in  the  lower  valleys.  Now  gold  dredges 
run  by  electric  power  from  the  Sierra  and  floating  in  lakes 
of  their  outi  creation,  are  eating  their  way  back  and  forth 
through  the  land,  working  over  the  gold-bearing  gravel  down 
to  bed  rock.     (Fig.  120.) 

"With  the  rise  of  vein  -mining,  however,  nearly  all  the  Cor- 
dilleran    states    became    producers    of    the    precious    metals. 


Courte'y  of  I'ept.  of  AericiilTiire 

Fig.  118.     Young  date  orchard  near  Tempe,  Arizona. 

Colorado,  indeed,  has  often  held  first  place,  having  the  richest 
gold  district  in  the  United  States  around  Cripple  Creek,  and 
the  principal  silver-lead  district  around  Leadville. 

Mercury,  the  only  metal  fluid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  is 
mined  extensively  at  New  Almaden,  Cal.;  lead  in  the  Coeur 
d'Alene  district  of  Idaho;  copper  in  Arizona,  Montana,  and 
Utah.  Butte,  Mont.,  is  the  greatest  copper  city  in  the  world. 
Abundant  deposits  of  tungsten  have  also  been  located  in 
Colorado  and  Arizona.  Iron  is  widely  distributed,  the  largest 
output  being  in  Colorado,  though  the  richest  iron  deposits 
in  the  West  arc  in  southern  Utah,  especially  Iron  County. 


i86 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


The  western  mountain  states  all  depend  chiefly  on  the  ores 
"dug  from  central  gloom."  Farms  and  ranches  exist  there 
to  feed  the  mining  camps.  It  is,  moreover,  through  the  prod- 
ucts of  its  smelters  that  this  region  enters  into  the  commerce 
of  the  world.  Shaler  even  surmises  that  in  the  "future  as 
many  men  will  toil  here  in  the  dark  recesses  of  the  mines  as 
work  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

199.  Other  Mineral  Products  of  the  West.  Coal  underlies 
considerable  areas  along  both  flanks  of  the  Rockies,  and 
smaller  districts  on  the  Pacific  slope.  Unfortunately,  most  of 
the  coal  fields  near  salt  water  are  rather  small  and  scattered, 
while  those  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  are  dependent  on 
transportation  by  rail.     (Fig.  79.) 


Fig.  jrg.     Location  of  prhuipal  metallic  deposits  in  the  West. 


THE   WESTERN  SECTION 


187 


The  coal  is  all  of  late  origin,  and  mostly  lignite.     But  in 
parts  of  Colorado  and  Washington  it  has  been  transformed, 


''  'tBM^    ^^^H^^HHeH^B 

_.  n 

• 

\ 

_  4 

—  ^■™- — -".^i-J 

^■-- 

/- ...     1 

■         y 

^^•'' 

rHtS^^ 

9pi^,    ■  ■"• 

n^ 

Courtesy  of  the  Bucyrua  Co. 

Fig.  120.    A  modern  gold  dredge  at  work. 

by  heat  and  pressure  during  the  upheaval  of  the  mountains, 
into  bituminous  coal  of  coking  quality ;  and  in  certain  small 
districts  of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  near  lava  flows,  it  has 
even  been  changed  into  anthracite.  Colorado,  holding  first 
place  in  coal  and  iron  west  of  the  Mississippi,  has  become 
the  Pennsylvania  of  the  West. 

Important  petroleum  fields  have  been  tapped  in  several 
states.  The  most  productive  is  in  southern  California,  where, 
owing  to  the  total  lack  of  coal,  the  crude  oil  (Fig.  121)  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  as  fuel.  In  fact,  the  output  of  oil 
in  California  is  now  more  valuable  than  the  gold.  In  1904, 
for  the  first  time,  the  region  west  of  the  Mississippi  produced 
over  half  of  the  petroleum  in  the  United  States. 

When  petroleiun  is  long  exposed  to  the  air,  the  lighter  parts 
evaporate,  leaving  ozokerite,  a  natural  paraffin  used  for  can- 
dles, or  asphaltum  used  for  pavements.  The  largest  output 
of  asphaltimi  is  in  California,  though  more  extensive  deposits 
are  found  in  Utah.  An  artificial  asphaltimi  is  also  made  in 
California  by  distillation  of  petroleum. 

The  substances  left  by  evaporation  of  salt  water  are  \^^dely 
distributed    in    the    West,    especially    gypsum.     Salt    occurs 


i88 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


chiefly  near  Salt  Lake  and  in  California  (Fig.  122);  borax,  in 
the  most  arid  districts,  such  as  Death  Valley. 

Precious  and  semi-precious  stones  occur  in  several  districts: 
turquoise  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  whence  the  Indians 
obtained  their  supplies;  sapphires  in  Yogo  Gulch,  Mont.; 
topaz,  beryl,  and  tourmaline  near  San  Diego,  Cal.;  and  a 
whole  petrified  forest,  containing  agate  and  chalcedony,  near 
Holbrook,  Ariz. 

200.  Manufactures  in  the  West.  Manufactures  in  tlie 
West  are  mostly  neighborhood  industries,  the  products  being 
consumed  near  at  hand.  Tliey  arc  somewhat  protected  from 
outside  competition  by  the  high  freight  rates  from  other 
sections;  but  by  the  same  means  most  of  them  are  prevented 
from  finding  a  larger  market. 

In  the  mountains,  the  smelting  of  ores  is  the  leading 
industry:  for  example,  at  Butte.  Mont.     It  is  also  important  at 


Courtesy  of  the  V.  P.  Rj. 

Fig.  121.     Oil  wells  and  derricks  in  the  Bahcrsficld  ilisirici,  Calijornic^ 


THE    WESTERS   SECTION 


189 


vSeattle,  near  the  principal  Pacific  coal  fields.     Colorado  has 
developed   a  considerable   iron   and   steel  industry,   notably 


Courtesy  of  Professor  J.  E.  Chamberla 

Fig.  122.     Salt  piles  in  the  Saltan  Sink  before  the  Colorado 

rose  and  flooded  it.     As  water  came  to  the  surface  of  the 

sink  and  evaporated,  it  left  a  layer  of  salt  which 

was  frequently  scraped  into  piles  and  hauled 

away  and  as  often  renewed.   {Fig.  112.) 

at  Pueblo;  and  steel  ship  building  has  made  some  progress 
on  the  coast,  especially  at  San  Francisco,  despite  the  lack  of 
coal  and  iron  in  the  vicinity.  The  mining  machinery  made  in 
Denver  and  Los  Angeles  is  known  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
Pacific  coast  cities  are  concerned  chiefly  with  lumber,  food- 
stuffs, and  mining  machinery.  At  the  census  of  19 10,  lumber 
was  the  leading  product  at  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Portland,  and 
Spokane,  located  near  the  heavily  forested  region.  (Fig.  123.) 
Flour  milling  is  also  a  prominent  industry  in  all  these  cities, 
notably  at  Spokane,  the  "Minneapolis  of  the  Far  West", 
likewise  at  Stockton  and  Sacramento,  all  situated  in  wheat 
districts.  In  San  Francisco  and  Los  Angeles,  the  supply 
points  for  many  mining  camps,  foundry  products  rank  first. 
San  Francisco  also  has  extensive  refineries  for  Hawaiian 
cane  and  California  beet  sugar,  while  the  canning  industry 


igo  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

is  found  both  in  California,  using  fruit,  and  along  the  Coliimbia 
and  Puget  Sound,  where  fish  are  extensively  tinned. 


Courtesy  of  Weister  &  Co- 

Fig.  123.     Timber  raft  on  the  Columbia  ready  for  towing  to 

San  Francisco.     The  logs  are  piled  into  a  deep  frame 

shaped  like  a  ship  in  order  to  ride  the  waves. 

Dependent  on  the  herds  and  flocks  are  the  leather-tanning 
industry  in  California  and  the  manufacture  of  woolen  goods 
which  has  begun  in  the  Columbia  and  Puget  Sound  country. 

The  manufacture  of  moving-picture  films,  in  which  the 
United  States  leads,  also  centers  in  southern  California,  where 
there  is  usually  sunshine. 

Another  condition  favorable  to  manufactures,  besides  the 
abimdance  of  raw  materials,  is  the  enormous  water  power 
available  on  both  flanks  of  the  Cordilleran  Highland;  notably, 
at  Great  Falls,  on  the  Missouri;  at  Colgate,  near  the  foot  of 
the  Sierra,  whence  the  electric  current  is  carried  to  Oakland 
and  San  Francisco;  at  Spokane,  the  Dalles,  the  Cascades,  and 
Oregon  City,  on  the  Columbia  system;  and  on  many  of  the 
streams  flowing  into  Puget  Sound. 


THE   WESTERN  SECTION 


I9t 


201.  Transportation  Facilities  of  the  West.  The  West, 
being  in  the  main  a  lofty  table-land,  has  few  inland  water 
ways.  ^The  rivers  entering  San  Francisco  Bay  are,  indeed, 
navigable  for  some  distance;  below  Stockton  and  Sacramento 
they  carry  considerable  traffic.  The  one  water  way  of  real 
commercial  importance,  however,  is  the  Columbia  system, 
navigable  by  seagoing  vessels  to  Portland  on  the  Willamette 
(no  miles)  and  by  river  steamers  to  Lewiston  on  the  Snake. 
At  the  Dalles  a  canal  eight  and  one-half  miles  long  and  eight 
feet  deep  at  low  water  has  been  built  around  the  rapids  (19 15). 

The  railways  in  the  West  consequently  hold  the  power  of 
commercial  life  and  death.  Moreover,  railway  construction  is 
unavoidably  expensive  there,  because  of  the  rugged  surface 
and  great  elevation  of  the  mountain  passes.  The  lowest 
summit  level  on  any   Pacific  railroad  is  about  double  the 


Fig.  124.     The  early  highways  to  the  Pacific.     {Compare  Fig.  61.) 


192 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


highest  elevation  on  any  raihvay  crossing  the  Alleghenies. 
The  result  of  these  conditions  is  such  high  freight  rates  as 
seriously  to  limit  many  industries. 

202.  Inland  Commercial  Centers  of  the  West.  Denver, 
the  one  great  city  of  the  plains,  is  mountain  bom,  having 
been  at  first  merely  a  stagecoach  station  and  outfitting  head- 
quarters for  mining  camps.     It  has  now  become  the  commercial 


-»  -'^iaxir' *J 


Courtesy  of  Great  Northern  Ry. 

Fig.  125.     Sacked  wheat  at  Waterville,   Wash.,  waiting 
shipment  dow7i  the  Columbia  to  Portland. 

center  of  the  entire  Rocky  Mountain  region,  to  which  it  is 
the  central  gateway.  More  than  a  dozen  lines  of  railways 
enter  its  stations. 

On  the  vast  plateau  between  the  Rockies  and  the  Sierra, 
the  principal  commercial  center  is  Salt  Lake  City,  reached 
from  the  East  by  a  number  of  railways,^  while  from  it  lines 

iThe  Union  Pacific  and  the  Denver  &  Rio  Grande  (Gould  line), 
built;  the  Denver  &  Salt  Lake  under  construction. 


THE    WESTERN    SECTION  193 

radiate  to  Butte,  Portland,  San  Francisco  and  Los  Angeles. 
Spokane  holds  a  somewhat  similar  position  in  the  upper 
Columbia  Basin. 

203.  Seaports  West  of  the  Coast  Range.  The  Pacific  coast 
is  singularly  straight  and  unbroken,  with  mountains  rising 
directly  from  the  sea.  Such  a  coast  line  is  in  general  unfavor- 
able to  commerce. 

San  Diego,  on  a  small  but  secure  harbor,  sheltered  by  a 
sand  bar — the  famous  Coronado  Beach — is  the  natural  outlet 
of  Arizona  and  the  Southwest.  It.  was  hemmed  in  by  the 
Coast  Range  which  rises  just  behind  it  and  has  pursued  largely 
"the  business  of  pleasure"  as  a  seaside  resort.  The  completion 
of  a  railway  through  the  mountains  to  Arizona  opens  a  way 
for  commercial  and  industrial  development. 

In  like  manner  Eureka,  on  Humboldt  Bay,  has  been  prac- 
tically limited  by  the  Coast  Range  to  handling  redwood 
lumber  from  the  adjacent  moimtains,  for  which  it  is  the 
principal  port  of  shipment;  but  railway  connection  with  the 
interior  is  now  established. 

Los  Angeles,  the  "City  of  Angels,"  lies  on  the  seaward 
slope  of  the  Coast  Range,  opposite  a  low  pass  or  gap  (the 
San  Bernardino,  now  traversed  by  three  lines  of  railway) 
which  leads  over  into  the  Imperial  Valley;  this  in  turn 
opens  opposite  the  Gila  Valley,  forming  a  natural  route  toward 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Thanks  to  this  situation,  which  in  effect 
eliminates  both  Coast  Range  and  Sierra,  and  to  a  climate 
as  mild  as  that  of  southern  Italy,  Los  Angeles  has  become 
the  business  and  residential  center  of  the  Far  Southwest. 

Like  Athens  and  Florence,  Los  Angeles  stands  a  few  miles 
inland,  having  been  founded  without  thought  of  sea-borne 
commerce.  For  ocean  traffic  it  depends  upon  an  artificial 
harbor  at  San  Pedro  protected  by  a  9,000-foot  government 
breakwater  and  inclosing  an  inner  bay  called  Wilmington 
Plarbor.  (Fig.  126.)  Three  railways  extend  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, one  along  the  sea  and  two  through  the  great  San 
Joaquin  Valley. 

10 


194 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


204.  Seaports  that  Pierce  the  Coast  Range.  The  Coast 
Range  is  pierced  by  navigable  waters  at  only  three  places  in 
the  United  States:  San  Francisco  Bay,  Columbia  River,  and 
Puget  Sound.  On  these  are  consequently  the  great  Pacific 
ports,  which  handle  the  bulk  of  American  commerce  with 
the  Orient. 

San  Francisco  has  a  harbor  larger  and  more  easily  accessible 
than  that  of  New  York.     It  became  important,  in  the  finst 

place,  through  the  dis- 


covery of  gold  in  the 
Sacramento  Valley,  and 
it  profits  most  from 
trade  with  Hawaii, 
Samoa,  Australia,  and 
the  Philippines.  San 
Francisco  is  now  the 
terminus  of  four  trans- 
continental railways,^ 
and  it  is  the  commer- 
cial metropolis  of  the 
Pacific  slope.  Moreover, 
just  as  the  Pacific  cable 
released  (1903)  oriental 
commerce  from  tribute 
to  the  overland  tele- 
graph, so  the  Panama 
Canal  frees  trans-conti- 
nental commerce  from 
dependence  on  the 
railways. 

Portland    is    a   river 


Pt.  Fermin       'i 


Fig.   126.     Artificial  harbor  at  San  Pedro. 

port  like  New  Orleans;  and  now  that  the  troublesoine  bar  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  has  been  conquered  by  jetties, 
and  the  rapids  in  the  river  are  passed  by  canals,  Portland 

*The  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Santa  Fe  coming  up  from  the  south; 
the  Union  Pacific  and  the  Western  Pacific  (the  new  Gould  line)  coming 
by  way  of  Great  Salt  Lake.     (Fig.  61.) 


THE     WESTERN     SECTION  195 

will  no  doubt  play  a  somewhat  similar  part  in  commerce, 
In  fact,  it  has  the  added  advantage  that  the  Columbia  runs 
with,  in  place  of  across,  the  general  course  of  commerce. 
Portland  is  alread}"  a  great  grain  and  lumber  port.  It  is, 
moreover,  reached  by  railways  from  vSan  Francisco  and  Puget 
Sound;  while  from  the  east,  branches  of  the  Union  Pacific  and 
of  the   Great  Northern   descend  the  Columbia  Valley. 

The  spacious  and  secure  harbors  on  Puget  Sound,  however, 
are  the  chief  rivals  of  San  Francisco  for  oriental  trade.  The 
principal  ports,  from  the  mouth  toward  the  head  of  the  Sound 
(117  miles)  are  Bellingham,  Everett,  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and 
Olympia.  On  Puget  Sound  are  the  terminals  of  the  three 
northern  transcontinental  lines:  the  Great  Northern,  Northern 
Pacific,  and  the  new  extension  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  & 
St.  Paul,  called  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Puget  Sound  (igog). 

The  Puget  Sound  ports  are  favored  by  the  fact  that  they 
stand  opposite  the  lowest,  narrowest,  and  least  sterile  part 
of  the  Cordillcran  Highland.  They  also  profit  most  from  the 
development  of  Alaska;  and  the  shape  of  the  earth  is  in  their 
fav^or,  bringing  China  and  Japan  nearer  to  Puget  vSound  than 
to  ports  farther  south. 


XIV— THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  THE  MARKETS 
.     OF  THE  WORLD 

"There  be  three  things  which  make  a  nation  great  and  prosperous:  a 
fertile  soil,  busy  workshops,  and  easy  conveyance  for  men  and  goods 
from  place  to  place." — Lord  Bacon. 

205.  The  Foundations  of  Commerce.  Commerce  is  rooted 
in  the  people  and  the  soil.  "A  nation's  commerce  is  born 
of  its  industry  and  is  part  of  its  struggle  for  the  necessaries, 
the  comforts,  and  the  luxuries  of  life."     (Webster.) 

The  people  of  the  United  States  are  active  and  adventurous 
by  right  of  inheritance;  for  only  those  of  such  a  disposition 
were  willing  to  brave  the  uncertainties  of  a  New  World. 
Moreover,  frontier  life,  in  conflict  with  untamed  nature  and 
savage  foes,  bred  inventiveness  and  self-reliance.  Finally, 
self-government  has  powerfully  promoted  general  education 
and    intelligence. 

The  natural  resources  of  the  country  match  the  spirit  of 
the  people.  No  other  equal  area  in  the  world  has  such  a 
combination  of  fertile  soil,  abundant  minerals,  navigable  waters, 
excellent  harbors,  and  temperate  climate.  And  no  other 
great  nation,  except  Russia,  fronts  on  the  two  greatest 
oceans. 

Everything  goes  to  show,  as  De  Tocquevilie  long  ago 
observed,  that  the  United  States  seems  formed  by  nature  to 
become  the  first  commercial  nation  of  the  world.  The 
achievement  of  this  high  destiny  is,  however,  reserved  for 
the  future. 

206.  Staple  Products  of  the  United  States.  All  new  coun- 
tries of  necessity  first  exploit  the  crude  resources  of  sea,  forest, 
field,  and  mine.  They  must  have  food  and  raw  materials  before 
they  can  undertake  manufactures.  There  is  consequently  a 
natural  order  in  the  development  of  industry  and  commerce. 


The  Productive  Areas 

UNITED  STATES 

SIIOWIN(,    THE 

Principal  Commercial  Products 

Scale 


.■;-■■,  N/x/».'..  j/,v,... 


J\i:ziist:d,  igij 


Fig.   128.     Areas  in  the   Unit 


F 

T  Lake  of  the  Woods 


X"^ 


-aV^ 


Otta^va 


_  lRO*PORE.^«!«.)^i»'J«;■        >rgAii  Mar"  Idle. 

'Fargo         Dulu1:h<><t>5?  •'VXiJ^*— 

_  RON  OR&^H' 

Omaha  .^\  cr^l    / ^^^^'^avneA;  DAm''i''°    PyS  IV    X.    4^nh\a/^J^ 

It.  5^' 


r.,    ,  ,,        ,        •  Copyright,  iqoq,  by  Rand  McNalLy  £s-  Company 

^lales    producing    commercial    SlapleS.  i'™™  ^-epur.  ot  industrial  Commiisiou 


THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  THE  MARKETS  OF  THE  WORLD        197 


The  United  States  first  entered  foreign  markets  as  an 
exporter  of  fish  and  timber  from  the  North  Atlantic  states, 
tobacco  and  cotton  from  the  South  Atlantic  states,  grain  and 
animal  products  from  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  area  of 
largest  production  has  indeed  shifted  westward  with  the 
march  of  population;  but  raw  products  still  make  up  a  large 
part  of  American  exports.     (Figs.  128,  130,  and  134.) 


Imports  by  classes 


Imports  by  articles 


Imports  by  countries 


Data  from  Commerce  and  Navigation,  1912-13,  and  U.S.  Stat.  Abs.,  1913 

Fig.  130.     Foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States.     Total,  average  for 
five  years  {millions  of  dollars):  exports  i,9g2\  imports,  1,572. 

207.  Fish  and  Furs.  Fish  were  for  colonial  New  England 
very  nearly  what  tobacco  was  for  Virginia;  and  a  codfish 
over  the  Speaker's  chair  in  the  State  House  at  Boston  still 
symboHzes  the  importance  of  the  fishing  industry  to  Mas- 
sachusetts. In  the  country  at  large,  the  fisheries  employ 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million  workers,  supporting  upward  of 
a  million  people. 

For  the  last  half  century,  however,  the  Atlantic  fisheries 
have  been  slowly  failing.     The  exports  of  fish,  mainly  canned 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


salmon  from  the  Pacific  coast,  are  now  less  than  the  imports. 
(Fig.  131.)     It  is  important  that  the  fisheries  be  preserved,  if 


By  liinds 


liy  exports 


l3y  districts 

Data  from  Fisheries  o(  U.  S.,  1908,  and  Com.  and  Nav.,  HU2-I3 

Fig.  131.     Fishing  industry  of  the  United  States.     Total  (millions  of 
dollars):  catch,  65.8;  exports,  average  for  five  years,  8.j. 

possible,  not  only  as  a  source  of  sea  food,  but  also  as  a  nursery 
of  able  seamen  and  rug^^ed  virtues.^ 

The  exports  of  furs,  including  among  other  kinds  seal  and 
sea-otter  pelts  from  Bering  Sea,  are  greatly  exceeded  by  the 
imports  from  Canada  and  the  cold  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

Curiously  enough,  up  to  19 13  sealskins  were  commonly  sent 
to  London  for  finishing,  and  then  repurchased  at  a  greatly 


Dy  species' 


By  districts 


Exports 


Census  Burea'i;  Forest  Products,  Forest  Service,  Circulara  for  1913  and  1913 

Fig.  132.     Lumber  industry  of  the  United  States.     Totals,  averages  for 
Jive  years:  cut,  jq.S  billion  feet.  b.  m.;  e.xports,  II3  nnllion  dollars. 

increased  price.     This  illustrates  how  relatively  undeveloped 
many  American  industries  are. 
1  See  Kipling,  Captains  Courageous. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  IN    THE   MARKETS   OF    THE    WORLD        199 

208.  Forest  Products.  Forest  products  (Fig.  132)  almost 
equaled  in  value  all  the  crude  mineral  products  of  the  United 
States,  as  shown  by  the  Thirteenth  Census. 

The  exports  of  forest  products  consist  mainly  of  yellow  pine, 
turpentine,  and  rosin  from  the  South,  together  with  redwood 
and  other  lumber  from  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  imports  consist  largely  of  tropical  "jungle"  products. 
Under  this  head  are  included  rubber  and  other  gums,  cabinet 
and  dye  woods,  cork,  and  tanning  agents,  notably  sumac  from 


After  Thirteenth  Census 

Fig.   133.     Value  of  all  crops  in  the  United  States. 

Italy  and  gambler  from  the  East  Indies.  In  addition,  there  is 
a  growing  importation  of  lumber  and  wood  pulp  from  Canada. 

209.  Live-stock  Products.  Domestic  animals  yielded, 
according  to  the  Thirteenth  Census,  products  amounting  to 
nearly  two-fifths  of  all  farm  products.  Hogs,  dairy  products, 
and  beef  cattle  were  each  valued  at  more  than  $500,000,000  a 
year;  while  even  the  industrious  hen  was  worth  almost  four 
times  our  annual  output  of  gold.  Sheep,  horses,  and  mules 
also  materially  swelled  the  census  totals. 

However  it  may  prove  in  the  future,  the  introduction  of 


200  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

steam,  gasoline,  and  electricity  has  not  as  yet  materially 
affected  the  commercial  importance  of  draft  animals. 

The  exports  of  meat  and  other  animal  products  on  the 
whole  exceed  the  imports,  going  to  all  the  densely  populated 
countries  of  Europe,  especially  to  Great  Britain.  There  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  large  import  of  raw  materials  of  animal 
origin,  notably  hides,  wool,  raw  silk,  feathers,  and  bristles. 
There  are  besides  growing  imports  of  meat,  eggs,  and  dairy 
products.  The  imports  of  hides  alone  amount  to  more  than 
$100,000,000  a  year. 

210.  Crop  Products.  The  crops  (Figs.  133  and  134)  of 
the  United  States,  as  ascertained  at  the  Thirteenth  Census, 


Use  of  land  Farm  prodiuns  I".x!iorl.>s  of  farm  produrls 

Data  from  Thirteenth  Census,  and  Statisticpl  Abstract,  1013 

Fig.   134.     Agricultural  industry  of  the  United  States.     Totals:  contiguous 

land  area,  i,QOj  million  acres;  farm  products  at  Thirteenth  Census, 

11,370  million  dollars;  exports  in  igio,  8ji  million  dollars. 

The  laud  not  in  farms  comprises  mountains, 

suHimps,  desert  regions,  roads,  and  cities. 

were  worth  over  $5,400,000,000.  One  year's  crops  would  thus 
more  than  pay  for  the  CW\\  War.  By  far  the  most  important- 
crop,  measured  both  by  acreage  and  value,  is  corn.  In  fact, 
the  com  crop  of  the  United  States  almost  equals  in  value  the 
two  crops  next  in  rank — cotton  and  hay. 

For  export  purposes,  however,  cotton  is  far  and  away  the 
most  important  crop.  The  United  States,  indeed,  furnishes 
the  bulk  of  the  world's  cotton.  (Figs.  84  and  85.)  Next  to 
cotton  the  principal  export  crops  are  wheat,  both  milled  and 
unmilled;  corn,  mostly  unground;  tobacco;  and  fruits,  chiefly 
apples  and  prunes.     (Fig.  134.) 


THE   UNITED  STATES  IN    THE  MARKETS  OF   THE  WORLD    20I 


The  imports  of  farm  products  are  mainly  of  tropical  or 
subtropical  origin.  The  increasing  dependence  of  the  United 
States  on  tropical  lands  is     ^gss '& 

1Q13- 


indeed  a  very  striking  and 
significant  fact.  (Fig.  135.) 
The  largest  single  item 
of  agricultural  imports  is 
sugar,  mostly  from  Cuba. 


42% 


U.  S.  Statistical  Abstract,  1013 

Fig.  135.     Imports  0^  tropical  and 
subtropical  products. 

Hitherto  all  the  exports  of  wheat 
from  the  United  States  have  hardly  paid  for  the  imports  of 
sugar.  Now,  however,  by  virtue  of  its  tropical  possessions 
and  beet  sugar  at  home,  the  United  States  is  in  a  position  to 
build  up  a  great  sugar  industry.     (Fig.  278.) 

The  imports  of  coffee,  largely  from  Brazil,  rival  and  may 
soon  exceed  sugar  in  value;  yet  the  Insular  Possessions  are 
admirably  suited  to  coffee  growing.  As  matters  now  stand, 
the  United  States  buys  from  Brazil  products  that  are  worth 
from  fifty  to  sixt}^  millions  a  year  more  than  Brazil  buys 
from  the  United  States.  This  trade,  if  distributed  among 
the  American  possessions.  Central  America,  and  Mexico, 
where  the  United  States  finds  a  much  better  market,  would 
increase  the  purchasing  power  of  those  countries  and  thus 
tend  to  enlarge  still  further  the  market  for  American  products, 
especially  American  manufactures. 

I      11      I      I       II       I      I       II      I      I      II      I       I      I       I     >    >    >    >    ,^  >   >   >  Ti  ^. 


Russia  in  Europe 
United  States  . .  . . 

Germany 

A  ustria-Htatgary. 

Great  Britain 

France 


TH   I  I   r 
I  I   I   I   I  I 


I  i   1^1   \'k'^  ' 


I   I   I   I   I   I 

I    i8s8\    I    I 


1 — i   I  „i  I  I — I   I   I   I — n 

,    1    •l8qT\ iqi2^ 

I     'I  ''''■'     >  I 


ipH 


1    i    VSyjTTqooTqio 


I    i    '/^/    iqoi  \iqil 


fSstiqoi 
'     '1 11/9// 


After  Statesman's  Year  Book,  1901,  1902,  1913 


Fig.   136.     Growth  of  population  in  the  principal  commercial 

countries.     Figures  at  top  indicate  millions;  figures 

on  lines  indicate  dates. 

211.    Why  Agricultural  Exports  Have  Begun  to  Decline. 

The  farmers'   mine,    the  soil,   is   not  easily  exhausted.       If 
properly  handled,  it  is  indeed  like  the  widow's  cruse  of  oil. 


COMMERCIAL   OLOGRAPH V 


Yet  within  a  few  years  the  United  States  will  be  largely 
dependent  on  Canada  for  timber;  the  stock  industry  of  the 


\Less  than  $50 

$SO  to  $100 

$100  to  $500 

/!i:K  !,SSoo  to  Si, 000  ' 

laemSr.ooo  and  over 


Fig.  137. 


Value  of  minerals  raised  per  square  mile  in  the 
United  States. 


West  has  already  received  a  check  through  the  overstocking 
of  the  ranges;  wheat  exports  show  a  marked  tendency  to 
decline;  and  cotton  has  not  kept  pace  of  late  years  with  the 
growth  of  population.  Farm  products  in  the  aggregate  still 
constitute,  it  is  true,  the  largest  single  item,  but  twenty  years 
ago  they  formed  the  great  bulk  of  American  exports. 

This  relative  decline  in  agricultural  exports  is  due  to  the 
law  of  decreasing  returns  in  agriculture  (§77),  operating  in 
the  face  of  an  unprecedented  increase  of  population.  (Fig. 
136.)  It  therefore  cannot  be  permanently  checked,  however 
intensively  the  soil  may  be  cultivated. 

212.  Mineral  Products.  Agriculture  and  mining,  the  one 
exploiting  the  surface  and  the  other  the  interior  of  the  earth, 
are  the  two  primary  industries  on  which  all  others  depend. 

The  mining  industry  of  the  United  States  has  advanced,  since 
J  880,  with  such  giant  strides  as  to  distance  both  Great  Britain 
and  Gennany .  (Fig.  137.)    This  development  has  been  furthered 


THE   UNITED  STATES  IN   THE  MARKETS  OF   THE   WORLD       203 

by  the  use  of  the  steam  shovel  in  open-cut  mines,  and  of  power 
machinery  for  cutting  and  handling  minerals  in  pit  mines. 


ColA 


Silver 


Mercury 


Data  from  Miaeral  Resources,  1909-13,  and  Report  of  Director  of  Mint,  1914 

Fig.  138.     World  production  of  minerals.     Totals  (averages  for  five  years): 

coal,  1,328  million  short  tons  (2,000  lbs.);  crude  oil,  J41  million  bbl. 

{42  gals.);  natural  gas,  52g  billion  cubic  ft.;  copper,  i.oig  thousand 

short  tons   (smelter  production);  lead,  1,231  thousand  short 

tons;  zinc,  gyg  thousand  short  tons;  gold,  22,211,608  oz. 

(455  millioji  dollars);  silver,  235  million  oz.  (144  million 

dollars);  mercury,  J,g44  metric  tons  (4.2  million 

dollars),     (See  also  Figs.  282,  2S3,  and  284.) 

The  United  States  now  holds  first  place,  by  a  wide  margin, 
in  the  output  of  mineral  fuels,  producing  more  than  a  third 


304 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


of  the  coal,  more  than  half  the  petroleum,  and  nearly  all  the 
natural  gas  used  in  the  world.  The  United  States  is  likewise 
first  in  the  great  industrial  metals,  iron,  copper,  lead,  and 
zinc;  also,  in  phosphate  rock.  (Fig.  138.)  The  United 
States  is  also  well  to  the  front  in  the  output  of  gold,  silver,  and 
mercury,  besides  various  minor  minerals.    (Figs.  137  and  138.) 

The  exports  of  crude  minerals,  on  the  other  hand,  consisting 
mainly  of  coal,  phosphate  rock,  and  petroleum,  are  largely 
exceeded  by  the  imports  of  minerals  not  produced  here  in 
sufficient  quantities  (Fig.  139). 

The  true  value  of  minerals,  however,  as  of  other  raw 
materials,  is  only  realized  when  they  serve  as  the  basis  of 


Products  bj'  kind 


Products  by  sections        Exports  of  crude  minerals 


Data  from  Mines  and  Quarrieg,  Vol.  XI,  Thirteenth  Census,  and  Com.  and  Nav.,  1914 

Fig.  139.     The  mineralindustry  of  the  United  States.     Totals   {millions 
of  dollars):  products,  I,2j8;  exports,  8g. 

manufactures.  A  pound  of  unwrought  iron  is  worth  only  a 
few  cents;  made  into  watch  springs  its  value  is  multiplied 
many  thousand  fold. 

213.  Manufactured  Products.  The  American  people  have 
a  natural  mechanical  bent;  in  fact,  "the  American  loves  a 
machine  as  an  Englishman  loves  a  horse."  Already  the  value 
of  American  manufactures  is  probably  double  the  value  of  all 
farm  products.  The  United  States  is  rated  by  some  as  the 
greatest  manufacturing  nation  in  the  world. 

Compared  with  Europe  as  a  whole,  however,  which  forms 
a  substantially  equivalent  area,  the  United  States  is  clearly  in 
the  "extractive"  stage  of  industry,  producing  chiefly  food  and 


THE   UNITED   STATES  IN   THE  MARKETS  OF   THE   WORLD    aoj 

raw  materials.  Even  a  major  part  of  the  articles  that  are 
classed  in  the  United  States  Census  reports  as  manufactures 
have  undergone  but  little  elaboration.  Such  articles  are 
rough  lumber,  breadstuffs,  meat,  mineral  oils,  and  many- 
other  commodities.  Europe  has  thus  far  retained  its  preemi- 
nence in  manufactures,  despite  the  great  resources  of  the 
United  States,  owing  to  an  abundant  supply  of  skilled  labor 
and  to  superior  educational  facilities  for  industry  and  commerce. 


Afior  Thirteenth  Ccnsua 


Fig.  140.     Proportional  value  and  intensity  of  ma7iufactures 
by  geographic  divisions. 

Nevertheless,  the  proportion  of  manufactures  among 
American  exports  has  largely  increased  since  1885;  and  this 
increase  extends  not  only  to  articles  such  as  agricultural 
implements,  encotmtering  little  competition  abroad,  but  also 
to  some  lines  of  competitive  manufactures,  notably  iron  and 
steel  products,  copper  wares,  including  electrical  machinery, 
and  leather  goods,  especiall}^  shoes.      (Figs.  140,141,  and  142.) 

214.  Why  Foreign  Markets  for  Manufactures  are  Necessary. 
Since  agricultural  exports  tend  to  decrease  as  population 
becomes  more  dense,  and  in  any  event  manufacturing  nations 


2b6 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


fSSf.. 


35% 


41% 


£5% 


60% 


Data  from  Commerce  and  Navigation,  1914 


Fig.  141.    Growth  of  export  trade  of  the 
United  States  in  manufactures. 


are  the  more  prosperous  and  powerful  because  not  compelled 
to  struggle  ever  harder  against  the  law  of  decreasing  returns 

(§77),  the  future 
commercial  pros- 
perity of  the  United 
States  manifestly 
depends  on  the 
export  of  manu- 
factured goods.  (Fig.  142.)  The  United  States  must  therefore 
obtain  and  maintain  foreign  markets  for  its  manufactures, 
or  undergo  a  gradual  "process  of  suffocation,"  which  would 
ultimately  reduce  the  teeming  millions  of  American  workmen 
to  poverty  and  lower  the  American  standard  of  living  to  the 
European  level. 

215.  Where  Markets  for  Manufactures  May  be  Found. 
Markets  for  manufactured  goods  are  to  be  found  in  the  future, 
not  in  Europe,  which  buys  chiefly  food  and  raw  materials 
and,  moreover,  controls  most  of  the  very  markets  the  United 
States  seeks  to  acquire ;  but  rather  in  the  American  Possessions, 
Canada,  Mexico,  South  America,  the  Orient,  and  other 
countries  which  largely  buy  manufactiu-ed  goods.     (Table  6.) 


Gross  value  of  products 


Exports  of  manufactures 


Fig.   142.     Manufacturing  industries  of  the   United  States.     Totals 

{millions  of  dollars):  products,  20,672  {Vol.  VIII,  Thirteenth 

Census);  exports,  i,i8£  {Commerce  and  Navigation, 

191 2,  191 3,  and   U.  S,  Stat.  Abs.,  191 3). 

It  is  in  these  same  countries,  moreover,  where  industry  is 
relatively  undeveloped   and   comparatively   little   capital   has 


THE    UNITED  STATES  IN    THE  MARKETS  OF   THE  WORLD    207 

been  accumulated,  that  considerable  investments  of  American 
capital  have  been  made,  especially  in  mines  and  railways, 
and  still  larger  investments  are  certain  in  the  future. 

These  countries,  therefore,  despite  the  present  preponder- 
ance of  Europe  in  American  trade,  are  the  ones  in  which 
the  United  States  has  the  greatest  interest,  as  markets  for 
American  manufactures  and  as  fields  for  the  investment 
of  American  capital. 

216.  The  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources.  The 
resources  of  nature  are  indispensable  to  support  the  life  of 
man,  yet  most  of  them  are  exhaustible. 

The  fisheries  have  long  been  declining;  practically  every 
merchantable  tree  in  the  United  States  has  been  counted; 
the  highest  grade  Superior  iron  ores  are  largely  exhausted, 
and  the  life  of  the  remaining  deposits  is  calculated  at  fifty 
years;  the  older  natural  gas  and  petroleum  fields  are  clearly 
failr^g;  and  if  the  use  and  waste  of  coal  shall  continue  to 
increase  as  during  the  last  fifty  years,  the  reserves  of  coking 
coals  in  the  United  States  can  hardly  outlast  the  present 
century.  Even  the  soil  is  suffering  severely,  not  only  from 
continuous  cropping  in  staple  crops  like  cotton,  wheat,  and 
corn,  but  perhaps  even  more  from  soil  wastage,  nearly  a 
billion  tons  a  year  being  swept  into  the  streams  and  eventually 
carried  into  the  sea.  As  Shaler  puts  it,  "of  all  the  sinful 
wasters  of  man's  inheritance  on  earth,  and  all  are  in  this  regard 
sinners,  the  very  worst  are  the  people  of  America." 

Such  being  the  situation,  what  can  be  done  about  it? 

Clearly,  we  cannot  cease  to  utilize  the  resources  of  nature, 
for  on  them  our  life  and  our  civilization  depend ;  but  if  private 
interests  can  be  in  a  measure  subordinated  to  the  public 
interest,  it  is  possible  to  check  the  waste  of  these  resources. 

For  one  thing,  by  handling  the  remaining  forests  on  scien- 
tific principles,  and  adopting  a  systematic  policy  of  refores- 
tation, muck  of  the  soil  wastage  may  be  avoided  and  the 
streams  preserved  for  irrigation,  navigation,  and  power 
purposes.     (Figs,  8  and  143.) 


2  08 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Secondly,  by  substituting  water  transportation  for  carriage 
by  rail,  wherever  practicable,  the  drain  on  the  coal  and  iron 
mines  may  be  greatly  diminished.  Rivers  require  no  rails, 
nor  do  steamboats  consume  as  much  fuel  per  ton  of  goods 
moved  as  do  locomotives. 

Thirdly,  by  exporting  manufactured  goods,  which  represent 
a  large  value  in  relatively  small  bulk,  rather  than  foodstuffs, 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Forfst  Servloe 

Fig.  143.     Reforestation  of  cut-over  la>tds;  succcssf;:/ 
natural  seeding  from  loiig-leaf  pine. 

raw  materials  or  coal,  the  drain  on  both  soil  and  mines  may 
be  lessened.  It  is  indeed  true  that  England's  export  of  coal 
furnishes  heavy  outbound  cargoes  to  offset  the  importation 
of  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials,  when  otherwise  many  ships 
would  go  in  ballast.  Full  cargoes  both  ways  tend  to  lower 
freight  rates,  which  is  one  secret  of  England's  success  in  foreign 
commerce.     Nevertheless,  every  cargo  shipped  abroad  hastens 


THE    UNITED   STATES   IN    THE  MARKETS  OF    THE   WORLD    209 

the  day  of  famine  prices  for  coal  at  home.  The  need  of 
conserving  natural  resources  thus  affords  another  and  perhaps 
the  greatest  reason  why  the  future  prosperity  of  the  United 
States  depends  on  the  export  of  manufactured  goods. 

Fourthly,  more  economical  methods  may  be  used  in  manu- 
facturing. Thus,  by  using  beehive  coke  ovens  and  not  saving 
the  by-products,  coke  making  in  the  United  States  is  a  crude 
and  wasteful  process.  Fortunes  are  lost — not  to  speak  of 
natural  resources  wasted — every  year  in  the  clouds  of  gas 
arising  from  the  Connellsville  coke  ovens;  and  little  use  is 
made  in  this  country  even  of  the  coal  tar  obtained  in  the 
process,  notwithstanding  it  is  the  source  of  aniline  dyes  and 
many  other  chemical  products. 

These  and  other  economic  reforms  depend  partly  on  aroused 

public  sentiment,  parth'  on  the  spread  of  technical  education, 

and  partly  on  changes  in  the  law  which  will  bring  the  interest 

of  the  owner  and  the  interest  of  the  public  more  nearly  into 

harmony.     The  problem  as  a  whole  is  too  vast  and  complex 

for  discussion  here^  but   this  much  is  clear:  so  long  as    the 

owner  is  taxed  on  the  standing  tree  and  the  ore  or  coal  in  the 

mine,  he  will  continue  to  make  haste  and  waste,  in  order  to 

get  out  what  he  can  before  the  taxes  consume  his  profits. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  he  were  taxed  only  on  the  tree  when  cut 

and  the  ore  or  coal  when  mined,  he  would  have  every  reason 

to    use    care    and    economy.     The    conservation    of    natural 

resources  must  therefore  begin  with  a  reform  in  the  law  of 

taxation. 

'  See  the  reports  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission,  the 
Inland  Waterways  Commission,  and  the  Proceedings  of  the  White 
House  Conference  of  Governor's  (Washington,  1909). 


XV— AMERICAN  EXPANSION  IN  THE  PACIFIC 

"The  Pacific  Ocean,  its  shores,  its  islands,  and  the  vast  region  beyond 
will  become  the  chief  theater  of  events  in   the  world's  great  hereafter," 

— W.  H.  Seward. 

217.  The  Character  of  Alaska.  Alaska  (Fig.  129)  corre- 
sponds in  position  and  climate  to  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula. 
Along  the  sea  in  the  southeast  the  temperature  seldom  goes 
below  zero.  At  Sitka,  for  example,  the  winter  average 
(32.5''  F.)  is  practically  the  same  as  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
The  interior,  however,  is  drier,  with  warm  summers  and  very 
cold  winters. 

The  Coast  Range  of  Oregon  appears  in  Alaska  in  places  as 
a  string  of  islands,  while  the  range  representing  the  Cascades 
rises  about  one  hundred  miles  inland.  The  Rockies  also  curve 
to  the  westward  some  distance  south  of  the  Arctic. i'  Most  of 
the  interior  between  the  Alaskan  and  the  continuation  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  is  drained  to  the  westward  by  the  Yukon, 
a  river  larger  than  the  Mississippi. 

Alaska  nearly  equals  in  size  the  region  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  south  of  the  Great  Lakes,  while  in  length  of  coast 
line,  it  exceeds  the  United  States. 

218.  Fisheries  and  Forests  of  Alaska.  Furs  first  attracted 
the  Russians  to  Alaska,  and  are  still  of  some  commercial 
importance.  The  catch  has,  however,  so  far  declined  that 
fur  farms  have  been  established  on  several  of  the  islands, 
containing  the  rare  black  and  silver  fox.  Fur  seals,  which 
frequent  tlie  Pribilof  Islands  at  certain  seasons,  have  been 
almost  exterminated  by  Canadian  and  Japanese  hunters, 
called  "pelagic  sealers,"  who  shoot  male  and  female  indis- 
criminately on  the  high  seas,  leaving  the  young  on  the  islands 
to  perish  miserably  of  starvation.  The  sea  otter,  yielding  the 
most  expensive  of  all  furs,  is  now  very  rare. 

'Brooks'  Geography  and  Geology  of  Alaska  (U,  S.  Geological 
Survey). 


AMERICAN  EXPANSION   IN   THE  PACIFIC 


Alaskan  waters  are  among  the  most  valuable  fishing  grounds 
in  the  world.  The  salmon  pack  is  over  half  that  of  the  United 
States;  the  catch  of  halibut  is  much  larger  than  in  the 
Atlantic,  some  being  shipped  even  to  New  England;  and  im- 
mense cod  and  herring  banks  are  almost  untouched.    (Fig.  144.) 


FISHERIES  AND  MINERALS 
OF 

ALASKA 

Coal  ;';;:;7  Copper  t 

Tin     ^       Gold  and  Silver  « 


l-'ased  on  M.  S.  <ioveriiment  Eep  -rtfl 

Fig.  144.     Fisheries  and  minerals  of  Alaska. 

Heavy  forests  cover  the  coast  east  of  Ivodiak  Island,  where 
the  southwest  winds  encounter  lofty  mountains.  There  is 
also  a  smaller  and  more  scattered  growth  of  trees  on  the 
slopes  up  to  2,000  feet  elevation  as  far  north  as  the  Yukon. 


a  12  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

These  forests  furnish  timber  for  the  mines.  On  the  coast,  where 
accessible  to  water  transportation,  they  are  also  of  probable 
commercial  value. 

219.  Mineral  Resources  of  Alaska.  Gold  has,  however, 
proved  tlie  great  magnet  to  populate  the  country,  recalling 
the  "days  of  '49'"  in  California.  Quartz  mining  is  carried  on 
around  Juneau,  where  the  Tread  well  mine  feeds  the  largest 
stamp  mill  in  the  world;  placer  mining  prevails  in  the  Yukon, 
Fairbanks,  and  Nome  districts.  The  gravels  are  commonly 
washed  by  powerful  streams  of  water  driven  against  them 
(Fig.  145) ;  but  steam  shovels  and  gold  dredges  have  also  begun 


i  Survey,  Rullt 

Fig.  145.     Hydraulic  elevator  on  Glacier  Creek,  Alaska.   Water 
is  pumped  to  higher  level  in  order  to  give  pressure 
jar  hydraulic  mining. 

to  be  employed.  (Fig.  120.)  Tin  is  found  on  Seward  Peninsula 
in  commercial  quantities;  and  there  are  immense  copper 
deposits  on  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  and  in  the  Copper  and 
Susitna  valleys,  which  may  prove  the  richest  in  the  world. 

Besides  metals,  Alaska  has  abundant  coal,  both  near  the 
coast  and  on  the  Yukon,  ranging  from  anthracite  through  an 
intermediate  class  of  coking  bituminous  coal  to  lignite.     The 


AMERICAN   EXPANSION  iN   THE  PACIFIC      ^  213 

coal  in  the  Matanuska  and  Bering  River  fields  is  the  best  on 
the  Pacific  slope.     Gypsum  is  worked  near  Juneau   (now  the 


Court«87  of  the  Rer.  Sheldon  Jackson 

Fig.  146.     Freighting  with  reindeer  in  Alaska. 

capital  of  the  territory),  and  marble  on  Prince  of  Wales  Island, 
both  conveniently  located  for  shipment  by  sea. 

220.  Agricultural  Possibilities  of  Alaska.  Furs  and  gold 
have  filled  Alaska  with  a  floating  population  in  search  of 
fortune;  only  agriculture  can  establish  homes.  Moreover, 
if  foodstuffs  must  continue  to  be  imported,  only  the  cream 
of  the  mineral  deposits  can  pay  expenses. 

On  the  wide  tundra  or  moss-covered  plains  in  the  north- 
west, beyond  the  Yukon,  reindeer  have  been  introduced  by 
the  Government  as  a  means  of  saving  the  natives  from  starva- 
tion, now  that  game  has  become  scarce.  These  promise 
to  be  of  great  value  both  for  food  and  freighting  purposes. 
(Fig.  146.)  Unlike  other  domestic  animals,  they  can  "rustle" 
for  their  food,  which  they  dig  up  from  beneath  the  deepest 
snows. 

The  grass-covered  islands,  and  seaward  slopes  from  Kodiak 
Island  west,  are  admirably  adapted  for  pasturage.  The  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  has  found  that  cattle  and  sheep 
both  thrive  there. 

The  example  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Finland,  similarly 
circumstanced  as  to  climate,  indicates  that  agriculture  should 
11 


2  14  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

be  possible  in  Alaska.  The  sun  shines  in  summer  eighteen  to 
twenty-two  hours  a  day,  setting  at  ten  and  rising  before 
three  on  the  lower  Yukon  (Fig.  171);  and  behind  the  Coast 
Range  there  is  little  cloudy  weather,  especially  in  the  Tanana 
and  Copper  valleys.  The  temperature  consequently  reaches 
90°  F.  with  a  summer  average  well  above  50°  F.  The  long 
hours  of  sunshine,  combined  with  an  unfailing  supply  of  mois- 
ture from  the  thawing  earth  beneath,  force  vegetation  to  an 
extraordinarily  rapid  growth.  It  has  been  proved  by  experi- 
ence at  various  places  along  the  Yukon  that  barley,  potatoes, 
and  all  common  vegetables  will  grow  at  least  as  far  north  as 
the  Arctic  Circle.  1  At  Rampart,  indeed,  grain,  including 
wheat,  has  matured  every  year  since  the  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  was  established  there. 

Alaska,  with  coal  and  food  products,  is  an  altogether  differ- 
ent country  from  the  "frozen  waste"  that  some  of  the 
books  still  describe.  To  encourage  settlement,  Congress  has 
made  the  homestead  unit  in  Alaska  320  acres. 

221.  Commerce  of  Alaska.  The  exports  (Fig.  147)  of  Alaska 
are  chiefly  gold,  fish  (mainly  salmon),  and  furs;  the  imports, 
foodstuffs,  machinery,  and  mining  supplies,  mostly  from 
the  United  States.  Between  Alaska  and  the  United  States 
there  is  entire  freedom  of  trade.     The  commercial  centers  are 


45% 

38% 

5% 

12% 

Gold 
15.5  million  dollars 

Salmon 
13.1 

0" 

All  others 
4.1 

Data  from  Report  of  Governor,  19X4 

Fig.  147.     Exports  from  Alaska.     Totals,  five-year  averages 
{millions  of  dollars):  exports,  34.2;  imports,  19.2. 

Skagway,  at  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal  or  inlet;  St.  Michael, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon;  and  Nome,  the  principal  town 
on  Seward  Peninsula.  Skagway  is  reached  from  Puget 
Sound  by  a  sheltered  "inside"  passage,  behind  the  fringe  of 

'Especially  at  Holy  Cross  Mission  and  Eagle.  See  McLain,  Alaska 
and  the  Klondike,  and  the  Reports  of  the  Alaska  Experiment  Stations 
(Department  of  Agriculture). 


AMERICAN   EXPANSION   IN    THE   PACIFIC 


IS 


islands,  almost  as  calm  as  a  pond.  It  offers  the  shortest 
route  to  navigable  water  on  the  Yukon,  which  is  reached  by 
a  railway  only  112  miles  long,  but  with  heavy  grades  over  the 
mountains  (2,880  feet).  At  Nome,  the  supply  point  of  a  rich 
gold-mining  district,  goods  and  passengers  must  be  landed 
through  the  surf  at  heavy  cost.  Both  Bering  Sea  and  the 
Yukon  River  are  as  a  rule  icebound  from  October  till  June. 


Courtesj  of  The  Mining  World 

Fig.  148.      Traveling  by  dog  sled  in  Alaska. 

222.  Transportation  in  Alaska.  Transportation  is  chiefly 
by  water  in  summer,  and  by  dog  sleds  (Fig.  148)  in  winter; 
for  in  Alaska  the  "freeze  up"  is  the  magic  power  which  turns 
the  marshy  tundra  into  a  solid  road  and  makes  of  every 
stream  a  highway  into  the  wilderness.  The  Government 
has  built  a  pack  trail  from  Valdez  at  the  head  of  Prince 
William  Sound  to  the  Yukon,  and  a  beginning  has  been  made 
in  constructing  roads  for  wheeletl  vehicles;  but  the  general 
lack,  of  wagon  roads  and  the  resulting  cost  of  transporting 
supplies  prevents  man}'  rich  mines  from  being  worked. 

There  are  two  short  mining  railways  on  Seward  Peninsula;  a 
third  extending  from  deep  water  on  the  Tanana  to  Fairbanks 


2l6  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

and  the  adjacent  camps;  and  another  built  to  haul  fish,  on 
the  southern  coast.  Of  more  general  interest  and  importance 
would  be  an  all-American  line  from  the  south  coast  to  navi- 
gable water  on  the  Yukon  System.  Two  such  lines  have  been 
undertaken:  one  from  Cordova  up  the  Copper  Valley  and  over 
Mentasta  Pass  (2,900  feet);  the  other  from  Seward  by  way  of 
the  Susitna  Valley  and  Caribou  Pass  (2,300  feet).  This  route 
has  been  chosen  for  the  government  railroad  authorized  in 
19 1 4  to  open  up  the  coal  and  other  resources  of  Alaska.  Both 
terminal  ports  are  always  ice  free,  that  of  Seward  being  as 
deep  and  calm  as  an  Alpine  lake. 

The  Alaskan  islands,  stretching  farther  away  to  the  west  of 
San  Francisco  than  San  Francisco  is  from  Maine,  contain  many 
admirable  harbors,  notably  Dutch  Harbor,  a  port  of  call  on 
the  way  to  the  Yukon  and  Nome.  Strange  as  it  may  seem, 
these  islands  lie  near  the  "great  circle"  route  from  Puget 
Sound  to  Japan,  and,  offering  sites  for  coaling  and  naval  sta- 
tions, they  give  the  United  States  no  mean  advantage  in  the 
struggle  for  commercial  and  naval  control  of  the  Pacific.^ 

223.  The  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  natives  of  Hawaii  came, 
according  to  their  traditions,  from  Samoa.  They  were  con- 
verted (1820)  by  New  England  missionaries,  who  founded  the 
American  influence  that  finally  led  to  annexation  (1898). 
There  would  thus  seem  to  be  truth  in  the  adage  that  "trade 
follows  the  missionary  and  the  flag  follows  trade." 

There  are  few  sights  in  the  world  more  beautiful  than  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  (Fig.  149),  a  group  of  emerald  gems,  rising 
abruptly  from  the  deep  sea,  with  towenng  volcanoes  still 
marked  at  times  by  flashes  of  fire  and  pillars  of  smoke.  Nine 
of  the  group  are  inhabited,  having  an  area  (6,449  square  miles) 
nearly  equal  to  N*ew  Jersey. 

The  latitude  is  that  of  Cuba;  but  the  Japan  current,  which 

is  cooler  than  the  land,  lowers  the  temperature  several  degrees 

(Honolulu,   74°  F.),  rendering  it  almost  ideal,  seldom  lower 

than  52°  or  warmer  than  92°  F. 

1  See  Rear  Admiral  Bradford's  article  on  Coaling  Stations  for  the 
Navy    {Forum,   Feb.,    1899). 


AMERICAN   EXPANSION   IN    THE   PACIFIC 


217 


The  lowlands,  being  alluvial,  are  as  a  rule  extremely  fertile; 
but  irrigation  is  often  necessary  on  the  lee  or  southwestern 
side  of  the  mountains,  where  the  rainfall  at  sea  level  is,  on 
the  average,  only  thirty-two  inches.  This  is  inadequate  in 
a  warm  country,  where  evaporation  is  very  rapid.  The 
uplands  are  cooler,  moister,  and  less  fertile.  As  in  the  lesser 
Antilles,  the  ports  and  towns  are  mostly  on  the  side  sheltered 
from  the  prevailing  northeast  trade  wind. 

224.  Natural  Resources  of  Hawaii.  The  mountains  are 
still  partly  forested,  though  wasteful  lumbering  and  herds  of 
wild  cattle  and  goats  roaming  at  large  have  ruined  much  valu- 
able timber.  The  adjacent  lowlands  have  therefore  suffered 
increasingly  from  drought,  while  the  streams  are  less  useful 
for  irrigation.  Recently  the  situation  has  grown  so  serious 
that  several  forest  reserves  have  been  established. 

Fishing  is  now  largely  in  the  hands  of  Japanese,  The  catch 
is  consumed  in  the  islands.  Stock  raising  is  of  some  impor- 
tance on  the  uplands,  especially  above  the  timber  line  (6,000 
to  8,000  feet)  where  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  all  do  well. 
Three  of  the  smaller  inhabited  islands  are  private  sheep  and 


■i& 


IIHAU 
-fe. 


IKauai  I.       -aJ* 

oloa    •     vfi 


le>^ 


.M^' 


^^"^ 


MoLoicAn: , 


/     / 


/ 


\ 


HAWAII 

Scale 

33 50 T 


-c 


IOC 


97  Statute  Miles  to  one  inch 

Rnilwi>ya  ____^ 

Steamship  lines  _  «_«. 

Lava  flows w^-n^- 


Fig.  149.     The  Hawaiian  Islands. 


2l8  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

cattle  ranches.  Owing  to  the  rugged  surface,,  only  a  small 
part  (less  than  5  per  cent)  of  the  land  is  under  crops.  The  great 
commercial  crop  of  Hawaii  is  sugar  cane  (Fig.  150),  grown 
mostly  on  the  lowlands  (under  500  feet),  though  on  the 
windward  slope  it  ranges  up  to  2,000  feet  elevation.  It  is 
irrigated  on  the  southern  slopes  but  grows  without  irrigation 
on  the  northern.  Rice  and  taro,  also  irrigated,  are  the  staple 
food  crops.  Taro  is  a  root  crop  which  takes  the  place  of 
potatoes  in  the  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

Other  crops,  that  are  becoming  increasingly  important,  are 
pineapples,  which  flourish  on  dry  lowlands;  cocoa  and  bananas 
(the  bananas  shading  the  cocoa),  vanilla,  and  rubber,  all  need- 
ing a  moist  climate  and  giving  the  best  results  under  500  feet 
elevation;  coffee,  tobacco,  and  vegetables  on  the  uplands. 
Coffee  does  best  on  the  drier  side  above  2,000  feet  elevation, 
while  tobacco  thrives  in  the  cloud-belt  on  the  windward  slope. 
Sisal  fibre  is  a  promising  crop.  Pineapples,  bananas,  and  coffee 
have  already  reached  a  commercial  basis.  Most  of  the  pineapples 
are  canned  for  export,  the  value  of  the  shipments  reaching 
nearly  $10,000,000  in  1920.     One  of  the  canneries,  consuming 


"'   ■■^'7^^,  .:13C^,-«^a:;;'*:i*^ 

=r^.-  "      ■■•  •■-'      -  ,-  C'.*-^-'  ■-*;x.  -        ^'^ 

^y..          ,      .,  .*-v^^   /-'E^.v^.s^-  ,     _^. 

Courtesy  of  Profeasor  H,  W.  Henshaw 

Fig.  150.     Gathering  sugar  cane  in  Hawaii, 

250  tons  of  fruit  a  day,  is  reputed  to  be  the  largest  in  the 
world,  surpassing  even  the  great  canneries  at  Singapore. 


AMERICAN  EXPANSION  IN   THE  PACIFIC 


319 


225.     The  Population  of  Hawaii.    The  sugar  industry  has 
filled   Hawaii  with   Asiatics  (Fig.  151);  and  still  the  sugar 


Population  of  Hawaii  Imports  by  countries  Exports  by  articles 

Data  from  Reporta  of  Governor  of  Hawaii,  1910-14 

Fig.  151.     Races  and  commerce  of  Hawaii. 

Population  at  Thirteenth  Census,  iqj,90Q.     Commerce,  five-year  averages 

{millions  of  dollars):  exports,  45.7,  practically  all  to  the  United  States; 

imports,  30.6,  mostly  foodstuffs  and  manufactures. 

planters  are  not  satisfied.  Their  laments  about  the  "scarcity 
of  labor"  mean,  what  such  laments  usually  mean  the  world 
over,  a  scarcity  of  people  willing  to  work  for  a  few  cents  a  day 
(§74).  Such  "scarcity  of  labor"  as  this  is  a  sign  of  a  rising 
standard  of  living  and  therefore  of  real  economic  progi'ess. 
On  the  other  hand,  only  upland  crops  such  as  coffee  and 
tobacco  can  support  an  American  population.  There  are 
estimated  to  be  350,000  acres  at  2,000  to  5,000  feet  elevation 
where  coffee  would  thrive. 

The  preponderance  of  Asiatics  in  Hawaii  can  hardly  be 
viewed  with  indifference.  In  all  countries  the  race  which 
furnishes  the  laborers  tends  more  and  more  to  crowd  out  the 
ruling  race ;  •  for  it  is  a  fact  observed  in  many  lands  that 
the  so-called  "upper  classes"  die  out  in  time  unless  constantly 
recruited  from  the  laboring  classes  or  by  immigration. 
Already  the  Asiatics  in  Hawaii  have  made  their  way  into  many 
occupations  formerly  confined  to  the  whites. 

226.  The  Commerce  of  Hawaii.  Internal  transportation 
is  well  provided  for  by  highways,  several  short  railways,  and 
by  coasting  vessels.  The  several  islands  are  connected  by  a 
wireless  telegraph  system,  and  the  Pacific  cable  makes  two 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


landings  in  the  archipelago.  Honolulu,  the  capital,  is  a 
modern  city,  with  telephones,  electric  light,  and  electric  cars. 
Hawaii  enjoys  free  trade  with  the  United  States,  which  conse- 
quently constitutes  almost  the  sole  market  for  Hawaiian  prod- 
ucts and  furnishes  the  bulk  of  Hawaiian  imports.  (Fig.  151.) 
The  importance  of  Hawaii  for  sea-borne  commerce  depends 
upon  its  unique  position.  It  is  the  "crossroads  of  the  North 
Pacific"  and  therefore  a  natural  mid-ocean  supply  station. 
Its  value  is  further  enhanced  by  isolation;  only  small  coral 
islands  lie  within  a  radius  of  2,000  miles.  (Fig.  195.)  More- 
over, it  has  in  Pearl  Harbor  (Fig.  152)  an  ideal  location  for 

a  coaling  and  naval  station. 
Naval  vessels  cannot  cross  the 
Pacific  without  recoaling; 
hence  Hawaii  in  American 
hands  guards  the  Pacific  coast 
of  the  United  States  better 
than  a  dozen  battle  ships. ^ 

With  the  Panama  Canal  com- 
pleted, Hawaii  becomes  at 
once  its  western  gateway. 
227.  American  Samoa.  The  beauty  of  the  Samoan 
Islands,  clothed  in  the  richest  verdure  to  the  mountain  tops, 
the  charm  of  their  ever-balmy  climate,  the  native  courage, 
courtesy,  and  generosity  of  their  people,  have  drawn  from  all 
beholders  the  most  glowing  tributes.  Our  youthful  dreams  of 
an  island  in  the  far  southern  seas  where  it  is  always  summer  and 
the  burdens  of  life  are  laid  aside,  here  seem  to  be  realized. 
It  was  in  Samoa  that  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  after  wandering 
the  world  over,  fixed  his  home  and  chose  his  last  resting  place; 
and  his  writings^  have  given  it  fame  throughout  the  world. 
In  the  division  of  the  islands  (1898),  Germany  received  the 
two  larger  islands,  now  occupied  by  New  Zealand,  while  the 
United   States  obtained  the  five   small  islands  at  the   east, 

iMahan,  Interest  of  America  in  Sea  Power. 
^Footnote  to  History,  Vailima  Letters,  etc. 


Fig.  152.      Honolulu  and 
Pearl  Harbor. 


AMERICAN  EkPANSION   IN    TtiE  PACIFIC  221 

having  an  area  of  seventy-seven  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  about  6,ioo.  The  largest  American  island,  Tutuila,  is 
seventeen  by  five  miles  in  extent. 


SavuV  )      ^S     / 

Island'^ "^ '/-"-^^^^^^tmnaaloaBau  ""  --""""  '"""  '" 

<^^^---.^«»B({otoa  aay  [  ijteamship  lipea 

T  TcT    A  wn      •  '  ' 


SAMOA 

Scale 


Cj'}  Statute  Miles  to  one  inch 


Upolu  Island  *'/;        "~~— ~-~.^  O       C 


'If  .^^tt  TU'S^-  -flHAU  ISLAND 


^        A         C        ^    /   /  «=3TigoPago 

y    I  TrrxriLA  Island 
^^  J  (■;.  a.)  RosElSLAin)  "S* 


Fig.  153.     Samoa. 

The  natives  produce  some  copra,  the  dried  meat  of  the  cocoa- 
nut,  for  export.  The  real  value  of  American  Samoa,  however, 
consists  in  its  harbor  and  its  location.  The  harbor  of  Pago 
Pago,  a  crater  now  invaded  by  the  sea,  is  deep,  landlocked, 
and  easily  made  impregnable  to  attack.  (Figs,  ii  and  24.) 
Here  a  steel  pier  and  coal  sheds  have  been  erected  for  the 
Navy.  From  Samoa  the  island  chains  radiate  and  the 
Polynesian  peoples  originally  spread;  and  most  of  the  com- 
mercial routes  in  the  South  Pacific  pass  close  at  hand.  Samoa 
is,  in  fact,  the  "crossroads  of  the  South  Pacific."  (Figs.  153 
and  195.)  Pago  Pago  is  already  a  port  of  call  on  the  steam- 
ship route  from  San  Francisco  to  Australia;  and  it  lies  on  one 
of  the  routes  fi-om  Sydney  to  the  Panama  Canal. 

Unfortunately,  however,  the  surrender  to  Great  Britain 
(1884-189 2)  of  all  the  islands^  lying  between  Hawaii  and 
Samoa,  most  of  which  had  been  American  for  very  nearly  half 
a  century,  has  rendered  an  all-American  cable  to  Pago  Pago 

'Known  as  Guano  Islands  under  a  law  passed  in  1856.  About 
seventy  groups  in  all  were  occupied  by  Americans,  including  Fanning 
or  America  grouyi,  where  the  British  cable  now  lands;  the  so-called 
Central  Pacific  Sporades ;  and  the  Manahiki,  Union,  and  Pha>nix  groups. 

Even  Jarvis  (or  Rowland)  and  Nantucket  (or  Baker)  islands,  where 
Commander  Davis  formally  raised  the  American  flag  (1858),  are  now 
marked  "British  red"  on  some  British  maps;  while  the  United  States 
Department  of  State  disclaims  all  knowledge  as  to  their  status.  The 
Marquesas  Islands,  over  which  Captain  David  Porter  raised  the 
American  flag  during  his  famous  cruise  in  the  "Essex"  (1813),  were 
subsequently  annexed  by  France  (1842). 


222 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


afc 


Fig. 


:54- 


Guam. 


practically  impossible.     Yet  despite  the  wireless,  naval  opera- 
tions are  in  large  part  "an  affair  of  coal  and  cables." 

228.  Wake  and  Guam.  Wake  Island,  a  coral  reef  barely- 
rising  above  the  sea,  was  annexed  by  the  United  States  (1899) 
as  a  possible  cable  station;  but  Midway  Island,  a  part  of 
the  Hawaiian  chain,  was  finally  used  for  this  purpose. 

Guam  (Figs.  154  and  201)  is  the  largest 
island  (thirty-two  by  nine  miles)  between 
Hawaii  and  Manila,  having  an  area  of  210 
square  miles  and  a  population  estimated 
at  9,000.  It  is  well  wooded  and  fertile, 
exporting  some  copra.  Under  intelligent 
cultivation,  it  might  readily  be  made  an 
important  source  of  cocoa.  Provision  l:as 
already  been  made  for  an  agricultural 
experiment  station  there. 

Guam  was  seized  (1898)  during  the 
Spanish  War,  as  a  way  station  on  the  route  to  Manila.  It  is 
the  cable  center  of  the  western  Pacific,  having  the  American 
cable  to  San  Francisco  and  Manila,  the  Dutch  cable  to  Yap 
and  Menado,  and  another  cable  to  Japan.  It  is  also  a  coaling 
station  for  the  Navy;  and  is  governed,  like  Samoa,  by  a  naval 
officer. 

Unfortunately,  Guam  has  only  an  exposed  roadstead  where 
a  naval  vessel,  the  "Yosemite,"  has  been  lost,  and  where  an 
artificial  harbor  could  be  constructed  only  at  heavy  expense. 
This  is  the  more  regrettable  as  the  Caroline  Islands,  stretching 
across  the  Pacific  for  2,500  miles  just  south  of  the  route  to 
Manila  (Fig.  159),  which  might  just  as  well  have  been  occu- 
pied by  the  United  States,  contain  a  number  of  excellent 
harbors.^  This  group,^  as  well  as  the  Mariannes,  sold  after 
the  close  of  the  Spanish-American  War  by  Spain  to  Germany 
(1899),  is  now  occupied  by  Japan. 

'See  Rear  Admiral  Bradford  (Forum,  Feb.,  1899). 

2Fifty  small  island  clusters;  area  about  560  square  miles;  population 
35,000  to  40,000.      Area  of  Mariannes,  aside  from  Guam,  270  square  miles. 


AM  ERIC  A\    EXPAN^IOS    IX    THE   PACIFIC 


223 


229.  The  Philippine  Archipelago.  It  was  indeed  a  strange 
chance,  if  chance  it  was,  which  brought  the  great  Philippine 
archipelago, 
named  in  honor 
of  a  Spanish 
king,  beneath 
the  American 
flag  (1898). 

The  Philip- 
pine Islands 
(Fig.  196)  are 
scattered  over 
a  region  almost 
equal  to  that 
extending  from 
Lake  Superior  to 
the  Gulf  of  IMex- 
ico,  and  from 
Lake  Michigan 
to  the  Atlantic; 
while  their  land 
area  (115, 026 
square  miles)  ex- 
ceeds New  Eng- 
land and  New 

York.      Lying 

whollv     within  Fig.  155.     Rice  terraces  at  Banaue,  Philippines. 

the  Tropics,  their  climate  is  warm  the  year  round  (Manila, 
81**  F.)  and  very  moist,  especially  in  summer  and  on 
slopes  exposed  to  the  northeast  trade  wind  (§51).  In  north- 
ern Luzon,  however,  around  Baguio,  the  summer  capital, 
there  are  extensive  highlands  4,500  to  7,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  where  the  temperature  ranges  from  40°  F.  to 
80"  F.,  and  the  climate  is  "like  that  of  Vemiont  in  early 
summer."  These  highlands  are  covered  with  grass,  oaks, 
and  pines;  and  it  is  here,  if  anywhere,  that  the  white  race 


224  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

will  make  its  home  in  the  Philippines.  Tropical  highlands, 
however,  lack  one  thing  necessary  to  the  full  vigor  of  northern 
people — a  tonic  winter. 

230.  The  Inhabitants  of  the  Philippines.  The  natives  are 
believed  to  number  upward  of  8,000,000,  divided  between  Ne- 
gritos, or  dwarf  negroes,  and  Malays  and  further  sub-divided 
into  twenty-four  tribes  speaking  mutually  unintelligible  lan- 
guages. Of  these  tribes  eight,  containing  the  bulk  of  the 
population,  are  Christian;  fragments  of  several  tribes  are 
Mohammedan   (Moros);  and  the  others  are  heathen. 

The  mass  of  the  people  even  in  the  most  civilized  tribes 
are  densely  ignorant ;  very  few  (10  per  cent)  even  speak  Spanish 
after  three  centuries  of  Spanish  rule.  Their  standard  of  living 
is  naturally  low  and  their  wants  are  few  and  simple.  If 
they  are  ever  to  come  in  touch  with  the  modem  civilized 
world  and  develop  an  important  commerce,  they  must 
learn  English.  An  efficient  system  of  public  schools  using 
English  has  therefore  been  established;  and  though  it  is 
admittedly  a  risky  experiment  in  the  Tropics,  a  very  large 
measure  of  self-government  has  been  granted,  including  an 
elective  Philippine  Assembly. 

231.  Fisheries  and  Forests  of  the  Philippines.  Nearly  every 
native  is  said  to  be  more  or  less  a  fisherman;  everywhere  fish 
and  rice  are  the  staple  foods.  The  Sulu  Sea  also  yields  con- 
siderable quantities  of  pearls  and  pearl  shells. 

Over  half  the  land  is  forest-clad,  bearing  many  valuable 
tropical  cabinet  woods.  Most  of  the  forests  are  state  property, 
and  a  scientific  forestry  system  has  been  established.  The 
natives  make  large  use  of  the  bamboo,  a  gigantic  tropical 
grass  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  for  building;  the 
leaves  of  the  nipa  palm  for  thatching  their  huts;  the  rattan, 
which  sends  up  thin  whip-like  shoots  of  great  length,  in  place 
of  ropes;  the  betel  leaf  and  areca  nut  for  chewing,  in  lieu  of 
tobacco;  while  the  fermented  sap  of  various  palms  serves 
as  wine.  Of  commercial  importance  are  dammar  and  copal 
resin, both  used  in  varnishes;  rubber  and  gutta-percha,  found 


AMERICAN  EXPANSION  IN    THE   PACIFIC  225 

in  the  islands  south  of  Negros;  sapan  wood,  yielding  a  yellow 
dye;  and  the  oil  distilled  from  ylang-ylang  flowers,   which 
serves  as  the  base  of  fine  perfumes. 
232.    Agricultural  and  Mineral  Products  of  the  Philippines. 

The  surface  is  mountainous;  but  the  soil,  being  largely 
volcanic,  is  very  fertile.  Most  of  the  people  live  from  the 
land;  though  only  a  small  part  (less  than  5  per  cent)  is  tilled, 
and  the  methods  of  tillage  are  very  crude.  (Fig.  156.)  For 
this  reason  much  rice  must  be  imported,  coming  largely  from 
French  Indo-China. 

For  local  use  the  leading  crops  of  the  Philippines  are  rice 
in  the  lowlands,  also  in  terraced  fields  (Fig.  155),  com  in 
the  uplands;  besides  sweet  potatoes  and  fruits  such  as  the 
banana  and  mango.     For  export  purposes  the  principal  crops 


Pennission  of  Philippine  Photo  Co. 

Fig.  156.     Plowing  rice  field  with  carabao  in  Ihe  Philippines. 

are  Manila  hemp  (abaca),  grown  chiefly  from  Manila  south; 

sugar  cane,   also  in  the  middle  islands,   especially  Negros; 

tobacco  in  the  Cagayan  Valley  of  northern  Luzon;  and  the 

cocoanut  everywhere  near  the  sea.     The  Philippines  have  a 

monopoly  of  Manila  hemp  (Fig.  157),  which  is  indispensable 

for  the  best  ropes,  and  are  the  most  important  source  of  copra, 

from  which  cocoanut  oil,  used  both  in  soap  and  in  butter 

making,^  is  obtained.     Crops  of  great  promise  are  coffee  on 

1  At  Marseilles,  cocoa  butter  goes  under  the  names  of  cocoaline  and 
vegetaline. 


326 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


the  nortliern  highlands ;  cocoa  and  vanilla  in  sheltered  lowlands 
having  a  close,  moisture-laden  atmosphiere ;  and  spices  in  the 


Fig. 


15; 


Perm  saion  of  I'hilippii 

Shipping  Manila  hemp  in  original  bundles. 


islands  south  of  Negros,  where  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  and  pepper 
grow  wild  and  ought  therefore  to  thrive  under  cultivation. 

Manila  cigars  are  the  "Havanas"  of  the  Orient.  Exquisite 
hand-woven  fabrics  are  made  from  the  pineapple  fiber  (pina) 
and  the  maguey,  a  species  of  century  plant.  There  are  also  some 
native  ropewalks,   manufacturing  cordage    of  Manila  hemp. 

The  mineral  resources  embrace  gold  and  copper,  especially 
in  the  northern  highlands;  rich  iron  deposits,  and  coal  equal 
to  the  best  on  Puget  Sound,  both  widely  distributed.  The 
"pines  and  mines"  of  the  Renguct  Highlands  are  attracting 
a  considerable  American  population,  which  will  doubtless 
develop  other  industries  than  mining,  as  happened  in  California. 

233-  Commerce  in  the  Philippines.  During  the  rainy 
season  nothing  can  be  moved  on  land  except  on  mud  sleds. 
These  arc  drawn  by  water  buffaloes,  which  are  the  principal 
work  animals  of  the  islands.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  'transporta- 
tion facilities  by  land,  most  of  the  population  is  crowded 
together  near  the  sea  or  on  navigable  water  ways. 


AMERICAN   EXPANSION  IN    THE  PACIFIC 


237 


When  the  Americans  took  charge,  there  was  one  railway 
120  miles  long,  Manila  to  Dagupan,  accompanied  by  a 
telegraph  line.  This  road  has  now  built  important  branches; 
and  other  roads  have  been  begun  on  several  islands.  To 
protect  navigation,  the  Insular  Government  maintains  light- 
houses and  coast-guard  vessels.  Finally,  the  Army  has  built 
a  network  (some  9,000  miles)  of  telegraph  lines  and  cables 
connecting  all  parts  of  the  archipelago.  Most  of  these,  as 
likewise  the  telephones,  are  now  operated  as  a  part  of  the 
postal  service. 

The  Americans  have  also  created  modern  machinery  of 
exchange  in  the  islands.  The  post  office  operates  a  Postal 
Savings  Bank;  and,  to  rescue  the  natives  from  the  clutches  of 
Chinese  and  half-breed  money  lenders  who  charged  twenty  to 
forty  per  cent  a  month,  the  Government  has  established  an 
Agricultural  Bank,  which  loans  money  in  small  sums  at  reason- 
able rates.  New  Philippine  coins  have  also  been  minted,  the 
unit  being  the  peso,  worth  fifty  cents.  It  is  based  on  the  gold 
standard,  and  is  as  stable  in  value  as  United  States  money. 


Acreage  of  crops 


Imports  by  countries 

Data  from  Foreign  Commerce  of  the  Philippine  Islands 


Fig.   158.     Crops  and  commerce  of  the  Philippine  Islands.     Acreage,  latest 

census,  1,173  thousand  hectares  (i  hectare  equals  2.47  acres).     Commerce, 

five-year  averages  {millions  of  dollars):  exports,  47  {50  %  in  191 4 

to  U.  S.);  imports,  si.g,  chiefly  manufactures  and  rice. 

The  exports  are  chiefly  abaca  (hemp),  sugar,  copra,  and 
tobacco;  while  the  imports  are,  in  the  main,  rice  from  the 
French  possessions  in  Asia,  and  manufactures  from  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.     (Fig.  158.) 


228 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


ordinarily  indented. 


To  increase  Philippine  commerce,  American  or  other  outside 
capital  must  be  invested  so  as  to  increase  production.  Imports 
must  be  paid  for  in  the  long  run  by  exports,  and  increased 
exports  must  be  based  on  an  increased  output  of  goods,  which 
means  the  use  of  more  efficient  methods  and  machinery.  This 
is  more  likely  to  occur  since  the  Tariff  Act  of  19 13  established 
free  trade  between  the  Philippines  and  the  United  States. 
234.  Seaports  of  the  Philippines.  The  coast  is  extra- 
There  are,  indeed,  over  3,000  islands, 
though  only  twelve  of  large  size;  but 
owing  to  the  progressive  rising  of  the 
land  in  parts  of  the  archipelago,  many 
of  the  harbors  are  shallow.  The  prin- 
cipal commercial  ports  are:  Sulu  and 
Zamboanga  in  the  south;  Cebu  and 
Iloilo  in  the  central  islands,  ranking 
respectively  second  and  third  in  ton- 
nage; Manila  and  Aparri,  in  Luzon. 
The  principal  port  for  foreign  trade 
is  Manila,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pasig 
River,  which  gives  access  to  Lake  Bay.  A  quaint  medieval 
city  but  a  few  years  ago,  Manila,  under  American  rule,  has 
rapidly  taken  on  a  twentieth  century  aspect.  As  the  bay  is 
shallow  and  exposed,  the  Insular  Government  has  constructed 
an  artificial  harbor  where  the  largest  vessels  can  lie  along- 
side the  docks  in  any  weather.  This  harbor  is  of  more  than 
local  importance  because  many  commercial  routes  pass  the 
mouth  of  Manila  Bay.  (Fig.  159.)  In  fact,  a  circle  struck 
from  Manila  with  a  radius  of  1,500  miles  will  include  nearly 
every  important  city  from  Shanghai  to  Singapore. 

When  Dewey's  guns  in  Manila  Bay  sounded  the  death  knell 
of  Spanish  dominion,  they  thus  at  the  same  time  gave  to  the 
United  States  an  "empire  on  which  the  sun  never  sets,"  and 
unbarred  to  American  commerce  the  Gates  of  the  Orient. 


Fig. 


159.     The  site  of 
Manila, 


XVI— AMERICAN  EXPANSION  IN  THE  CARIBBEAN 

"The  natior  which  controls  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  is  master  of  the 
world." — Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

235.  Causes  of  American  Expansion.  The  West  Indies 
belong  by  position  and  interest  to  the  United  States  rather 
than  to  Europe;  but  only  since  the  Spanish  War  have  the 
American  people  turned  their  faces  to  the  sea. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  indeed,  looked  forward  to  the  time  when 
Cuba  should  become  American;  but  after  Florida  had  been 
acquired  (1819),  the  American  flag  paused  at  tidewater 
for  eighty  years,  until  the  West  was  won,  the  issue  of  slavery 
settled,  and  a  continent  subdued  to  the  uses  of  man.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  the  rapid 
increase  of  population  in  the  United  States,  the  approaching 
exhaustion  of  free  land  outside  the  arid  belt,  and  the  growtli 
of  export  trade  in  manufactures,  all  showed  that  the  age  of 
isolation  was  passing.  It  is  during  such  periods  of  apparent 
stagnation  that  the  forces  gather  which  dominate  the  next 
generation.  And  so  in  i8g8  the  time  was  ripe,  though  we 
knew  it  not.  The  same  war  which  opened  the  gates  of  the 
Orient  battered  down  the  walls  raised  in  the  West  Indies 
by  the  Spanish  colonial  system,  as  formerly  by  the  English,  to 
secure  a  monopoly  of  their  trade. 

236.  The  People  and  Government  of  Porto  Rico.  Porto 
Rico  was  first  colonized  (1508)  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  the  same 
man  who  sought  in  Florida  the  fountain  of  perpetual  youth. 
Though  Porto  Rico  was  less  disturbed  by  revolts  than  Cuba, 
because  smaller  and  more  easily  mastered,  the  Americans 
were  nevertheless  welcomed  by  the  Porto  Ricans  (1898). 

In  Porto  Rico  as  in  Cuba  the  white  people  are  in  the  major- 
ity, while  in  other  West  Indian  islands  hardly  one  person  in  a 
hundred  is  white.  This  startling  difference  results  from  the 
fact  that  of  all   Eiiropeans  who  have  colonized  the  West 

C339) 


230 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Indies,  only  the  Spaniards  have  become  acclimated  so  that 
they  are  able  (or  at  least  willing)  to  endure  manual  labor  in 


-^1^  T  L    A 


tdlllaC 


Bfayaruez\. 


ii^'^^ ^^ r-, 


'      C    A  ^^^  /  ^-^ByB\  E 


%    T   J    C 


OiSC    E    Ar   N 

Vieques  ** %'t''i<i>^ 

ViEViUES  I.         ^       I 
^U^.j * 


S    E    A), 


Fig.  i6o.     Porto  Rico  and  Us  dependencies. 

the  fields  (§225).  The  poor  whites  {Giharos)  of  Porto  Rico 
are  in  large  part  peasant  proprietors,  a  sort  of  "tropical  back- 
woodsmen," while  in  Cuba  the  land  is  held  in  great  estates. 

Aside  from  the  planter  and  professional  classes,  many  of  the 
people  are  entirely  illiterate,  with  few  wants  and  a  rather  low 
efhciency  in  labor;  but  a  good  system  of  public  schools  is  now 
in  operation.  The  language  of  instruction  is  increasingly 
English;  but  the  island  will  no  doubt  remain  Spanish-speak- 
ing, owing  to  home  influences.  The  government  is  substantially 
that  of  an  American  territory,  though  customs  duties  accrue  to 
the  Porto  Rican  treasury.  Between  the  United  States  and 
Porto  Rico  there  is  entire  freedom  of  trade,  except  that  all  coffee 
imported  into  Porto  Rico  is  taxed. 

237.  Surface  and  Climate  of  Porto  Rico.  Porto  Rico 
(thirty-five  by  ninety-five  miles  in  extent)  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  Connecticut.  (Fig.  160.)  The  surface  is  rugged, 
reaching  3,609  feet  elevation,  but  even  the  mountains  are 
covered  with  a  fertile  clay  soil.  It  is  consequently  the  most 
highly-cultivated  and  most  densely-peopled  island  of  the  West 
Indies,  with  the  exception  of  Barbados. 

The  climate  is  of  course  tropical.  The  temperature  varies 
but  little  throughout  the  year,  San  Juan  having  an  average 
of  78.5°  F.     The  rainfall  is  heaviest  in  summer  and  autumn. 


AMERICAN  EXPANSION  IN   THE   CARIBBEAN  231 

as  a  result  of  the  nearer  approach  of  the  equatorial  belt  of 
calms.  It  is  excessive  (120  inches)  on  the  northern  and 
eastern  slopes,  which  are  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the 
trade  wind,  while  irrigation  is  sometimes  necessary  for  crops 
on  the  southern  slope. 

The  cooler  uplands  and  drier  west  have  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  white  inhabitants.  Because  of  climate,  Mayaguez  is  the 
favorite  residence  of  wealthy  planters. 

238.  Products  of  Porto  Rico.  The  mountains  still  bear 
patches  of  primeval  forest  containing  cedar,  ebony,  and  a 
non-fragrant  variety  of  sandalwood.  A  National  Forest 
Reserve  has  been  estab- 
lished containing  some  of 
this  primeval  forest. 

The  higher  slopes  above 
2,500  feet  are  largely  cattle 
pastures;  the  middle  slopes 
above-  1,000  feet  are  occu- 
pied by  coffee  plantations, 
with  some  fields  of  upland 
rice,  corn,  and  beans  for 
local  use.  Owing  perhaps 
to  the  fact  that  coffee  is 
liere  planted  at  lower  alti- 
tudes than  in  most  tropical 
countries,  it  suffers  unless 
well  shaded.  Tobacco  also 
flourishes  in  the  interior 
valleys  of  this  zone,  notably 
around  Cayey,  where  it  is 
grown  to  some  extent  under 
tents.  The  lower  slopes 
and  plains  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  grow  sugar 
cane  and  a  little  sea-island  ^        ,       „  co„,.«,ofP.p..ofA^icuuure 

,  .,  ,  ,  Fig.  161.      Branch  of  coffer  tree 

cotton,    while    along    the  with  berries. 


232 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


shore  is  a  fringe  of  cocoanut  groves.  Goats  are  everywhere, 
the  goat  being,  so  to  speak,  "the  poor  man's  cow." 

The  growing  of  fruits,  especially  the  orange,  pineapple,  and 
grapefruit,  is  a  flourishing  industry  on  the  lower  levels. 

Coffee  was  the  leading  crop  under  Spanish  rule;  moreover, 
most  of  the  island  being  mountainous,  it  is  better  adapted  to 
coffee  than  any  other  crop.  The  Porto  Rican  coffee  (Fig.  i6i) 
is  of  a  very  high  grade;  but,  as  a  result  of  the  Spanish  War, 
it  lost  the  Spanish,  without  gaining  the  American,  market. 
Coffee  was  furthermore  the  mainstay  of  the  small  white  farmers 
in  the  uplands,  while  sugar  cane,  which  has  largely  increased 
its  acreage  under  American  rule,  means  great  estates  worked 


Use  of  the  land  Exports  by  articles  Imports  by  countries 

Data  from  Report  of  Governor  of  Porto  Rico,  1914,  and  U.  S.  Stat.  Abs..  1913 

Fig.   162.     The  crops  and  commerce  of  Porto  Rico.     Totals:  land  {igoS), 

2.04  million  acres;  commerce,  five-year  averages  {millions  of 

dollars):  exports,  43. Q  i8j%  to   U.  S.);  imports, 

3/'. I,  largely  foodstuffs  and  manufactures. 

by  negro  labor.  (Fig.  162.)  If  the  white  farmers  are  not  to  be 
driven  from  the  island,  thus  converting  it  into  another  Haiti, 
the  coffee  industry  must  be  preserved  and  extended.  Fortu- 
nately, the  worst  of  the  coffee  crisis  seems  to  be  past. 

Manufactures  are  limited  in  the  main  to  sugar,  cigars,  and 
cigarettes,  rum  distilled  from  molasses,  and  "Panama"  hats. 

239.  The  Commerce  of  Porto  Rico.  Porto  Rico  under 
Spanish  rule  "had  attained  the  fullest  possible  development  of 
the  ox-cart  and  wooden-plow  civilization."  Any  further 
advance  consequently  depends  on  modem  machinery  and 
means   of   transportation. 


AMERICAN  EXPANSION  IN   THE  CARIBBEAN 


233 


The  Spaniards  did,  however,  build  one  good  military  high- 
way (Fig.  163),  and  the  Americans  have  added  a  considerable 


Copyright,  I'.Hjl,  Iietroit  Fhoto  1  o. 

Fig.   163.     Military  road  in  Porto  Rico — a  macadamized  highway 
from  San  Juan  to  Ponce. 

mileage  of  macadamized  roads.  There  is  now  regular  auto- 
mobile service  between  San  Juan  and  Ponce.  These  cities  are 
also  connected  by  a  belt  line  of  railway  along  the  coast,  and 
are  provided  with  electric  cars  and  electric  lights.  The 
multitude  of  rushing  streams  offer  power  sufficient,  if  utilized, 
to  operate  all  the  railways  needed  in  the  island,  including 
electric  lines  from  coast  to  coast. 

The  coast  line  of  Porto  Rico  is  singularly  unbroken.  Even 
the  harbor  of  vSan  Juan,  the  principal  city,  is  small  and  dan- 
gerous to  enter  in  rough  weather,  though  securely  landlocked. 
Ponce  is  an  inland  town,  at  the  edge  of  the  foothills  opposite 
the  lowest  pass  in  the  mountains,  and  its  playa,  or  port,  is 
poorly  sheltered.  Curiously  enough,  the  best  natural  port 
in  the  island,  Jobos,  in  the  southeast,  lies  almost  unten- 
anted. San  Juan  has  become  an  important  port  of  call  for 
steamers  making  the  circuit  of  the  Lesser  Antilles;  and,  by 
reason  of  its  exports  of  coffee  and  tobacco,  it  may  become  a 


234  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

port  of  call  between  Europe  and  Panama,  though  located  a 
little  off  the  direct  route  which  passes  eastward  of  St.  Thomas. 

Porto  Rico,  moreover,  affords  an  American  foothold  nearly 
a  thousand  miles  east  of  Florida.  It  unfortunately  lacks  a 
good  harbor  fronting  the  Mona  Passage  into  the  Caribbean; 
but  the  dependent^  island  of  Culebra — Stevenson's  "Treasure 
Island,"  beloved  of  every  boy — has  in  Deep  Harbor  (Ensenada 
Honda)  a  splendid  port  commanding  the  Virgin  Passage  to 
the  east  of  Porto  Rico,  and  serving  as  the  American  naval 
headquarters  in  the  eastern  Caribbean. 

240.  Relation  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Spanish  War  (i8g8)  Congress  disclaimed  by  the 
Teller  "self-denying"  resolution  any  purpose  to  annex  Cuba. 
The  opportunity  looked  forward  to  since  the  days  of  Thomas 
Jefferson  was  thus  put  aside.  The  Piatt  Amendment,  how- 
ever, subsequently  embodied  in  a  treaty,  established  a  virtual 
protectorate .2  It  also  provided  for  the  leasing  to  the  United 
States  of  naval  stations  at  Guantanamo,  on  the  Windward 
Passage,  and  Bahia  Honda,  west  of  Havana.  Guantanamo 
guards  the  route  from  all  the  Atlantic  ports  of  the  United 
States  to  Panama,  while  Bahia  Honda  commands  both 
entrances  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  motto  on  the  seal  of  Havana — "The  Key  of  the  New 
World" — was  thus  no  idle  boast.  By  virtue  of  its  position,' 
Cuba  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  control  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean,  which  together  constitute  the 
"American  Mediterranean." 

^Fiv'e  other  small  islands  were  ceded  with  Porto  Rico,  the  largest 
being  Vieques  or  Cralj  Island. 

-The  provisions  are  in  brief  that  the  United  States  will  not  permit 
a  foreign  attack  upon  Cuba.  In  return  for  this  protection,  Cuba 
agrees  to  maintain  sanitary  conditions,  to  lease  naval  stations  to  the 
United  States,  and  neither  to  alienate  territory  to  any  other  nation 
nor  to  incur  excessive  debts  which  would  cause  international  compli- 
cations. The  United  States  has  the  right  to  intervene  if  public  order 
is  seriously  disturbed  or  if  these  promises  are  not  kept.  This  right  has 
already  been  exercised  on  invitation  of  the  Cuban  government,  which 
found  itself  unabVe  to  suppress  an  insurrection. 

'Mahan,  Interest  of  America  in  Sea  Power. 


AM  ERIC  AX   EXPANSION   IN    THE   CARIBBEAN 


235 


241.  "The  Pearl  of  the  Antilles."  Cuba  (Fig.  164)  is 
nearly  a  thousand  miles  long,  and  in  land  area  slightly  larger 
than  Pennsylvania. 

A  range  of  low  mountains  traverses  the  west,  a  hilly  belt 
continues  through  the  center,  while  along  the  eastern  end  a 
lofty  range  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea.  On  the  whole,  the 
surface  is  fairly  level  and  the  soil  exceedingly  productive.  By 
reason  of  its  fertility,  Cuba  fully  merits  its  Spanish  title, 
"The  Pearl  of  the  Antilles." 

The  climate  is  similar  to  that  of  Porto  Rico  (§237),  but 
slightly  cooler  (Havana,  77°  F.)  by  reason  of  latitude. 

Cuba  was  colonized  by  Spain  a  century  before  the  Pilgrims 
landed    at    Plymouth;  and    the   white   population   is   almost 


^  -^ S^nt1^»go  de  Cuba 


CUBA 

Scale 

0       2S      50 

196  Stat.  HiUl  to 


«f    N. 


Fic,.  I  64.     Cuba. 

exclusively  of  Spanish  descent.  Americans  have  made 
several  settlements  in  recent  years  and  have  acquired  not  a 
little  landed  property;  but  by  far  the  largest  immigration  is 
still  from  Spain. 

242.  The  Products  of  Cuba.  Considerable  forests  still 
remain,  producing  mahogany,  Spanish  cedar,  used  in  cigar 
boxes,  and  dye  woods.  The  principal  dye  woods  are  fustic 
or  mora  wood,  dyeing  yellow;  and  logwood,  yielding  dark 
colors.  The  forests  are  largely  in  the  eastern  end,  around 
Santiago. 

The  earliest  colonial  industry  was  cattle  raising.  This  still 
prevails  in  the  uplands  of  the  east  and  center,  wherever  remote 


2^6  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHV 

from  railways.     Hides  and  other  animal  products  are  exported, 
including  considerable  honey  and  beeswax  from  wild  bees. 


Fig.  165.     Field  of  sugar  cane  with  central  mill  in  Cuba. 

For  a  century  (after  1727)  coffee,  introduced  by  French 
settlers  from  Martinique,  was  the  principal  market  crop;  but 
other  products  proved  more  profitable,  though  the  eastern 
mountains  offer  ideal  conditions  for  it.  Since  1903,  a  high 
tariff  has  somewhat  stimulated  coffee  and  cocoa  growing. 

During  the  last  century  sugar  cane  has  become  the  great 
staple  crop  of  Cuba.  (Fig.  165.)  In  other  islands  the  sugar 
industry  has  decreased  because  of  the  competition  of  European 
beet  sugar,  aided  by  government  bounties;  but  in  Cuba  the 
rich  limestone  soils  of  the  central  provinces,  where  cane  need  be 
replanted  but  once  in  seven  years,  aided  by  modern  machinery, 
have  made  good  the  unequal  struggle  against  beet  sugar.  Cuba 
is  by  far  the  greatest  exj^orter  of  cane  sugar.     (Fig.  278.) 

Next  to  sugar,  the  leading  Cuban  crop  is  tobacco,  which  was 
apparently  indigenous  to  the  island.  Here,  as  in  most  parts 
of  the  Tropics,  tobacco  is  a  winter  crop,  being  planted  in  the 
autumn  and  cut  in  the  early  spring.  The  best  quality,  though 
not  the  largest  quantity,  is  grown  in  a  small  district,  some 
twenty  by  eighty  miles  in  extent,  on  the  southern  slope  west 
of  Havana.     This  is  the  famous  Vuelta  Abajo  tobacco. 

Other  crops  of  increasing  value  are  bananas  and  cocoanuts 


AMERICAN   EXPANSION    IN    THE   CARIBBEAN 


237 


in  the  east,  especially  around  Baracoa,  and  pineapples  along 
the  northern  coast  west  of  Havana,  as  also  on  the  Isla  de  Pinos. 
Oranges  grow  wild  all  over  the  island,  while  lemons  from  the 
eastern  districts  are  equal  to  the  best  from  Sicily. 

Around  Santiago  are  important  mines  of  iron  and  manga- 
nese; also  copper  mines,  which  once  had  the  largest  output  in 
the  world.  Along  the  northern  coast  near  Cardenas  are  con- 
siderable deposits  of  asphaltum. 

Manufactures  in  Cuba,  as  in  Porto  Rico,  are  limited  to 
sugar,  tobacco,  rum  from  molasses,  and  plaited  straw  hats. 

243.  The  Commerce  of  Cuba.  Wagon  roads  hardly  exist 
in  Cuba  outside  the  cities.  There  are,  however,  more  than 
800  miles  of  plantation  railroad,  used  in  hauling  cane  to  the 
mills  for  grinding.  It  is  to  these  roads  and  these  huge  mills, 
costing  a  million  dollars  each,  that  the  sugar  industry  of  Cuba 
owes  its  continued  existence.     (Fig.  165.) 

There  are  also  upward  of  1,500  miles  of  public  railway, 
including  a  trunk  line  from  Havana  to  Santiago  with  branches 
to  the  two  coasts.  Havana  and  other  cities  have  in  addition 
extensive  electric  lines  run  in  part  by  water  power. 


Population  Exports  by  articles  Imports  by  countries 

Data  from  U.S.  Daily  Consular  Reports,  1913,  1915 

Fig.   i66.     Races    and    commerce    of    Cuba.      Population,   latest  estimate, 

2,46q  thousand;  commerce,  average  for  IQ12-14    {millions 

of  dollars):     exports,  178./  {8j%  to  U.  S.);  imports, 

122.4,  mostly  foodstuffs  and  manufactures. 

The  coast  of  Cuba,  having  a  belt  of  resistant  limestone  near 
the  sea  but  weaker  rocks  inland,  contains  many  deep  indenta- 
tions of  a  singular  bottle  shape.     Commerce  thus  "passes  out 


238 


COMMERCIAL      GEOGRAPHY 


at  a  hundred  gates."  Moreover,  these  landlocked  harbors 
with  narrow  entrances  are  admirably  adapted  for  defense,  as 
was  clearly  demonstrated  during  the  Spanish  War. 

The  principal  commercial  city  of  Cuba  and  the  metropolis 
of  the  West  Indies  is  Havana,  at  the  northernmost  bend  of  the 
island,  less  than  one  hundred  miles  from  Key  West.  Next  in 
rank  are  Santiago  in  the  east  and  Cienfuegos  in  the  south. 

Bahia  de  Nipe  has 
been  selected  by 
the  Cuba  Railway 
Company  as  their 
northern  terminus, 
and  there  Antilla 
has  been  founded 
under  American 
influences. 

Cuba  and  the 
United  States 
seem  formed  by 
nature  for  mutual 
dependence,  each 
producing  what  the 
other  needs.  Since 
the  reciprocity 
treaty  of  1903,  the 
exports  of  Cuba 
have  gone  mainly 
to    the    United 


The  Panama  Canal. 


States  and  the  imports  of  foodstuffs,  lumber,  and  fuel  have 
come  mostly  from  this  country.  (Fig.  166.)  But  the 
merchants  of  Cuba  arc,  as  a  rule,  Spaniards,  and  the  imports 
of  manufactures  still  come  in  great  part  from  Europe. 

244.  The  Relation  of  Panama  to  the  United  States.  When 
Panama  gained  its  independence  (1903)  from  Colombia  it 
promptly  granted  to  the  United  States  by  treaty:  (i)  the 
same  rights  conferred  by  the  Piatt  Amendment  (§240),  together 


AMERICAN  EXPANSION  IN   THE  CARIBBEAN  239 

with  sites  for  coaling  and  naval  stations;  (2)  a  strip  ten  miles 
wide  along  the  canal,  called  the  Canal  Zone  (Fig.  167), 
together  with  four  islands  near  the  Pacific  end  of  the  canal; 
and  (3)  the  right  to  erect  fortifications.  Moreover,  Panama 
was  expressly  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  United 
States,  though  it  is  still  recognized  as  an  independent  state. 

The  United  States  has  thus  planted  firm  foot  on  the  neck  of 
land  known  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  as  the  "Isthmus  of  Darien," 
where  men  of  imagination  have  never  ceased  to  dream  of  a 
canal  to  reunite  the  severed  oceans. 

245.  The  Republic  of  Panama.  Panama,  the  latest  born 
of  American  republics,  was  called  by  the  Spaniards  "the  grave 
of  the  living."  Extending  east  and  west,  in  the  lee  of  South 
America,  the  isthmus  is  not  exposed  to  the  full  sweep  of 
the  trade  wind ;  moreover,  it  comes  in  summer  under  the  belt 
of  calms  and  heavy  rains  which  accompanies  the  sun.  The  air 
is  thus  stagnant  and  reeking  with  moisture,  and  the  Caribbean 
coast  has  long  been  one  of  the  plague  spots  of  the  world : 
though  it  must  be  said  that  the  Americans  have  revolutionized 
health  conditions  in  the  Canal  Zone. 

Because  of  the  climate,  though  Panama  closely  approaches 
Indiana  in  size,  its  native  population  is  small  and  composed 
mainly  of  Indians,  negroes,  and  half-breeds. 

In  the  matter  of  resources,  Panama  compares  favorably  with 
most  of  tropical  America,  having  large  forests  of  cabinet  woods 
and  dyewoods,  uplands  well  suited  to  grazing  and  coffee  grow- 
ing, and  fertile  soil  on  the  lower  levels  which  will  produce  all 
tropical  crops.  There  are  also  valuable  pearl  beds  in  the  Bay 
of  Panama,  and  deposits  of  gold  and  coal  not  yet  exploited. 
The  principal  exports  are  tropical  fruits,  especially  bananas 
and  cocoanuts. 

In  Spanish  days  the  colossal  treasures  of  Peru,  which  for  a 
time  rendered  Spain  the  mightiest  power  in  Europe,  were  car- 
ried across  the  isthmus  on  mule  back.  After  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  California,  the  first  transcontinental  railway  in  America 
was  built  from  Colon  to  Panama  (1855),     This  road,  now 


240 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


belonging  to  the  United  States,  is  only  forty-seven  miles  long, 
and  has  a  summit  level  of  only  271  feet  between  the  oceans. 


Fig.  168.     Panama  Canal  excavated  to  grade  at  Matachin. 
There  is  also  a  pipe  line  across  the  isthmus  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  petroleum.     It  is,  however,  as  the  site  of  the  new  inter- 
oceanic  canal  recently  completed  that  Panama  is  now  most 
important  to  the  United  States  and  the  world. 

246.  The  Panama  Canal.  Each  northern  continent  is 
paired  with  a  southern;  on  the  intervening  narrow  stretches 
of  land  and  water  converge  the  great  lines  of  commerce. 
Since  Suez  was  pierced,  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  has  been  the 
greatest  obstacle  to  the  direct  course  of  world  commerce. 

The  opening  of  the  Panama  CanaP  consequently  means  a 
revolution  in  world  commerce.     (Figs.  168  and  i6g.) 

In  the  first  place,  the  cheapening  of  freights  has  stimulated 
the  growth  of  industry,  and  therefore  of  commerce,  on  all  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific.  In  anticipation  of  this  result,  new  trans- 
continental railroads  have  been  built  to  the  Pacific  in  Canada, 
the  United  States,  Mexico,  and  Central  America. 

1  Dimensions:  total  length  (including  locks,  etc.),  50.56  miles;  width 
(at  bottom):  minimum,  300  feet,  maximum,  1,000  feet;  depth,  minimum, 
41  feet;  summit  level,  85  feet  above  mean  tide.  {Official  Handbook  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  1913.) 


AMERICAN   EXPANSION   IN   THE   CARIBBEAN  24I 

Secondly,  San  Francisco  has  been  practically  as  near  by  sea 
to  Liverpool  as  to  New  York,  while  all  the  west  coast  of  South 
America  (which  continent  lies  wholly  east  of  Florida),  was  in 
effect  nearer  to  Europe  than  to  New  York.  The  Panama 
Canal,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  the  United  States  a  next- 
door  neighbor  of  Peru  and  Chile,  and  ought  to  give  the  Atlantic 
ports  of  the  United  States  decisive  commercial  advantages  as 
far  west  as  Sydney  and  Hong-kong,  perhaps  even  to  Singapore. 
(Fig.  169.)     The  Panama  Canal  will  thus  tend  to  reverse  the 

Hamburg  to  Hong-kong. 9,995  mtles  via  Suez  Canal 

,    12,176  miles  via  Panama  Canal 

Ne'M  York  to  Hoiig.ko7ig... 


18.480  miles  via  Hag(^lli»n 


Hamburg  to  1  'okohama 11,457  miles  via  Suez  Canal 

/  I  10,0U6  miles  via  Panama  Canal 

New  York  to  Yokchcjna .' 

( 


1G,757  miles  via  Magellan 


Hamburg  to  Melbourne n,362  miles  via  Suez  Canal 

10,030  miles  via  Panama  Canal 

New  York  to  Melbourne i 


12.852  miles  via  Magellan 


Hamburg  to  San  Francisco.. 
New  York  to  San  Francisco. 


,   9,355  miles  via  Panama  Canal 


13,883  miles  via  Magellan 


5,262  miles  via  Panama  Canal 


13,135  miles  via  Magellan 


Based  on  Panama  Canal  Traffic  and  Tolln 


Fig.  169.     Effect  of  Panama  Canal.     Comparative  distances  jrorn 

Hamburg  and  New  York  to  Pacific  ports  before  and  after 

opening  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

historic  direction  of  oriental  commerce,  drawing  it  east  in  place 
of  west  from  China  and  Japan,  causing  Manila,  San  Francisco, 
Balboa  (Fig.  193),  and  New  York  to  rival  Singapore,  Calcutta, 
Port  Said,  and  London.  In  the  long  run,  therefore,  the  com- 
merce that  London  lost  and  the  Mediterranean  ports  gained 
when  the  Suez  Canal  again  sent  the  current  of  oriental  commerce 
through  the  Mediterranean,  as  before  Vasco  da  Gama,  will 
be  in  part  transferred  to  America  by  the  Panama  Canal. 

Finally,  the  American  fleet,  having   the  power  of  quickly 


«42  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

concentrating  in  either  ocean/  will  be  nearly  doubled  in 
effectiveness;  provided  always  the  strategic  positions  com- 
manding the  approaches  to  the  Isthmus  are  secured  and 
strongly  held.  Now  that  the  canal  is  open,  Panama  has 
virtually  become  a  part  of  the  United  States  coast  line,  and  in 
fact  the  most  vulnerable  part,  being  the  vital  link  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  slopes,  the  meeting  point  of  two 
oceans  and  two  continents.     (Fig.  170  and  Frontispiece.) 

246>^.  St.  Thomas,  American  Naval  Base.  In  view  of 
the  necessity  of  controlling  the  approaches  to  the  Panama 
Canal  for  its  adequate  protection,^  American  diplomacy  was 
directed  for  a  number  of  years  toward  securing  by  purchase 
the  Danish  islands  in  the  West  Indies.  In  19 16  the  treaty 
of  purchase  was  ratified  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  19 17  accepted  by  the  Danish  government  after  a  vote 
of  the  people.     The  purchase  price  was  $25,000,000. 

Of  the  three  islands  secured,  St.  Thomas,  St.  John,  and 
Ste.  Croix,  St.  Thomas  is  strategically  the  most  important. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbor  and  lies  directly  on  one  of  the  great 
sea  routes  from  Europe. 

iHow  important  this  consideration  may  become  was  shown  during 
the  Spanish  War  by  the  sensational  voyage  of  the  "Oregon"  around 
South  America  to  reinforce  the  fleet  in  the  West  Indies. 

2 To  insure  the  safety  of  the  canal,  neutralization  has  been  proposed; 
but  this  would  simply  give  all  nations  joining  in  the  guarantee  the  right 
to  land  troops  at  the  canal  for  the  alleged  purpose  of  upholding  its  neu- 
trality. On  the  other  hand,  while  fortification  has  been  decided  upon, 
it  is  difficult  to  make  effective;  for  the  Gatun  Locks  are  within  easy  cannon 
range  of  the  open  sea. 

Writers  like  Captain  Mahan,  the  great  authority  on  sea  power,  and 
Rear  Admiral  Bradford  are  therefore  agreed  that,  in  order  to  be  secure, 
the  United  States  must  control  the  approaches  to  the  isthmus  from  both 
directions.  This  fact  gives  great  value  to  the  Dutch  West  Indies  and  the 
GaMpagos  Islands  in  the  Pacific,  as  well  as  to  Magdalena  Bay  in  Lower 
California.     (Figs.  181,  182,  194.) 


XVII— CANADA    AND   NEWFOUNDLAND 
"Daughter  am  I  in  my  mother's  house  but  mistress  of  mine  own." — Ktpltng. 

247.  The  Making  of  Canada.  The  fur  trade  was  at  once 
the  foundation  and  destruction  of  French  Canada,  for  it  left 
the  colony  without  a  solid  basis  in  agriculture. 

English  Canada  practically  began  with  the  American 
Revolution,  which  drove  to  New  Brunswick  and  Ontario 
thousands  of  loyalists,  including  many  belonging  to  the  edu- 
cated and  property-owning  classes  of  the  revolted  colonies. 

Convinced  by  the  Papineau  Rebellion  (1837)  and  the 
discontent  even  in  the  English-speaking  provinces  that 
repression  would  again  lead  to  revolution,  the  British  Parlia- 
ment conceded  provincial,  and  later  (1867)  federal,  self-govern- 
ment. The  nine  provinces  now  correspond  to  states  of  the 
American  Union;  and  the  Canadian  Parliament  possesses 
practically  all  the  powers  exercised  by  any  independent 
nation,  except  the  control  of  foreign  relations.  Canada, 
contributing  not  a  penny  to  the  British  treasury,  thus  enjoys 
most  of  the  benefits  with  few  of  the  burdens  of  independence. 

Recently  the  last  British  soldiers  have  been  withdrawn  from 
Canada,  leaving  the  fortresses  manned  by  Canadian  troops. 

248.  Surface  and  Climate  of  Canada.  Kipling's  reference 
to  Canada  as  "Our  Lady  of  the  Snows"  has  helped  to  fix  in  the 
public  mind  an  utterly  false  conception  of  the  country.  It  is 
perhaps  an  echo  of  Voltaire's  assertion  that  "all  North  iVmerica 
is  not  worth  fighting  for,  being  only  a  few  acres  of  snow." 

The  fact  is  that  Canada  extends  from  the  latitude  of  Rome 
to  that  of  North  Cape  in  Norway;  its  total  area  exceeds  that  of 
the  United  States  including  Alaska;  and  even  deducting  the 
Arctic  barrens,  the  part  fit  for  agriculture  (1,700,000  square 
miles)  equals  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rockies.    (Fig.  180.) 

The  long  hours  of  sunshine  (Fig.  171)  in  summer,  together 
witli  the  warm  winds  from  the  Pacific,  push  the  limits  of  grain 

(243) 


244 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


and  of  trees  a  thousand  miles  to  the  north  in  western  Canada, 
preserving  the  great  plains  there  for  the  uses  of  civilization. 
(Figs.  78  and  180.)  The  smaller  evaporation  and  somewhat 
larger  summer  rainfall  also  cause  the  broad  arid  belt  to  fade 
out  toward  the  north.  As  a  result,  while  the  Canadian 
Pacific  traverses  several  hundred  miles  of  country  east  of  the 
Rockies  where  irrigation  is  essential  to  agriculture,  the  new 
Grand  Trunk  Pacific  passes  to  the  northward  of  the  dry  lands. 
Such  a  country  can  readily  support  50,000,000  people 
and  perhaps  many  more.  It  is  well  clearly  to  recognize  the 
fact   that   Canada  is   fitted   both   by   the   character  of  its 


Fig.  171.     Possible  hours  of  sunshine  in  July. 

inhabitants  and  by  its  resources  to  be  the  one  serious  rival 
of  the  United   States  in  the  western  hemisphere. 

249.  Canadian  Fisheries.  The  rich  fisheries  of  the  eastern 
coast  first  drew  the  attention  of  Europe  to  that  region.  The 
center  of  the  fishing  industry  is  still  in  the  eastern  maritime 
provinces,  where  the  wide  submarine  plateau,  the  Arctic 
current,  and  indented  coast  offer  special  facilities.  (Fig.  65.) 
The  principal  fishing  port  is  Hahfax.     The  species  caught  are, 


CANADA    AND   NEWFOUNDLAND  245 

as  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  cod,  haddock,  herring,  mack- 
erel, and  lobsters  in  the  Atlantic;  whitefish  and  lake  trout  in 
the  Great  Lakes;  salmon  in  the  Pacific.  The  men  employed 
arS,  relatively,  far  more  numerous  than  in  the  United  States. 

250.  The  Fur  Trade  in  Canada.  Fur-bearing  animals  still 
abound  in  the  vast  subarctic  forest,  the  most  valuable  being 
the  beaver,  sable,  marten,  and  the  rare  silver  and  black  foxes. 
The  trappers  are  with  few  exceptions  Indians  or  half-breeds. 
Stations  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  are  scattered  along 
all  the  northern  rivers.  In  the  northwest,  the  chief  outfitting 
station  is  Edmonton,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  north 
Saskatchewan,  whence  a  short  trail,  recently  replaced  by  a 
railway,  leads  to  the  Athabaska.  The  fur  traders  follow  the 
water  ways,  using  canoes  in  summer,  dog  sleds  and  snowshoes 
in  winter.  Fox  fanning  has  also  become  an  important  industry, 
especially  on  Prince  Edward  Island. 

251.  Forest  Products  of  Canada.  Early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  lumber  succeeded  fur  as  the  leading  product  of  Canada. 

The  lumbering  industry  has  four  principal  centers:  New 
Brunswick,  where  spruce  prevails;  the  St.  Lawrence  basin, 
where  the  Ottawa  delivers  pine  to  the  mills  at  Chaudiere 
Falls  and  the  Saguenay  brings  down  birch  for  the  mills  at 
Quebec;  the  Georgian  Bay  region,  where  there  is  still  some 
pine;  finally,  the  Pacific  coast,  where  the  Douglas  fir  is  the 
most  valuable  timber. 

252.  Farming  in  Eastern  Canada.  Agriculture  is  now  the 
leading  industry  of  Canada,  furnishing  by  far  the  largest  share 
of  her  exports.     (Figs.  173  and  174.) 

The  eastern  provinces  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence  reproduce 
the  soil  and  climate  of  New  England,  though  the  part  of 
Nova  Scotia  along  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  being  shielded  from 
north  and  east  winds,  is  6°  F.  warmer  than  Boston.  This  is 
the  Acadia  of  the  French,  where  the  scene  of  "Evangeline" 
is  laid.  Besides  this  district,  now  a  famous  apple  country, 
and  Prince  Edward  Island,  which  has  a  very  fertile  soil,  there 
is  little  first-class  farming   land  in  the  maritime  provinces. 

12 


346 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Grain  fields  have  therefore  largely  given  way  to  dairy  pastures 
since  railways  reached  the  prairies  of  Manitoba. 

The  St.  Lawrence  Valley  contains  only  a  narrow  strip  of 
fertile  alluvial  soil  near  the  river.  Though  situated  in  the 
latitude  of  southern  France,  the  winters  are  cold  on  account 
of  the  prevailing  west  winds  from  the  interior  of  the  continent, 
and  for  the  same  reason  the  summers  are  long  and  hot. 
Maize  and  tobacco  are  staple  crops,  though  less  important 
than  are  oats,  potatoes,  and  hay. 

Southern  Ontario,  especially  the  peninsular  portion,  is  the 
garden  spot  of  Canada.  It  is  a  great  fruit  and  dairy  country, 
exporting  quantities  of  apples  and  cheese.  Canada  is  the 
greatest  cheese-making  and  cheese-exporting  country  in 
the  world.     (Fig.  38.) 

253.  Fanning  in  Western  Canada.  The  prairie  region  west 
of  Lake  Winnipeg,  extending  north  to  the  Peace  River  Valley, 
is  estimated  to  contain  four  times  as  much  prime  wheat  land 
as  the  United  States.  (Fig.  172.)  Moreover,  the  soil  is  so  fertile, 
when  first  won  to  the  plow,  that  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  a 
fourth  greater  than  is  the  yield  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
undeniably  cold  there  in  winter;  but  summer  crops  are  not 
dependent  on  the  winter  temperature.  Spring  is  said  to  be 
as  early,  and  summer  nearly  as  hot,  at  Dunvegan  on  the  Peace 
River    as    at    Winnipeg.     Spring   wheat    is    consequently    a 


Courtesj  of  C.  N.  Rj. 


Fig. 


172. 


Miles  of  wheat  in  Canada,  cut  and  ready  for  threshing. 
The  lure  that  draws  Americans  to  Canada. 


CANADA     AND     NEWFOUNDLAND 


247 


reliable  crop  at  Dunvegan  (latitude  56°),  while  potatoes  ripen 
as  far  north  as  Fort  Good  Hope,  almost  on  the  Arctic  Circle. 
It  is  thus  apparent  that  Minneapolis  is  about  in  the  center  of 
the  wheat-growing  area  of  North  America,  measured  from 
north  to  south.     (Fig.  53.) 

In  recent  years  hundreds  of  thousands  of  American  farmers 
have  settled  on  these  fertile  prairie  lands.     This  movement 


Populaiioa  by  origin 


Minerals 


Land  under  grass 
and  crops 

Data  from  Census  of  1011,  and  the  Canada  Year  Books.  1910-13 


Fig.   173.     People,  crops,  and  minerals  of  Canada.     Totals:  population, 
census  of  1911,  7,204,838;  land  under  grass  and  crops,  census  of 
1901,  31.5  million  acres  or  1.3%  of  total  area;  min- 
erals, five-year  average,  116.1  million  dollars. 

is  likely  to  grow  in  volume  as  the  pressure  for  land  becomes 
more  severe  in  the  United  States. 

The  arid  belt,  principally  south  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  line, 
is  given  over  to  cattle  ranches,  though  irrigation  is  rapidly 
being  extended  in  the  foothills  near  Calgary. 

Where  fairly  level  land  can  be  found  on  the  Pacific  slope, 
grain  and  fruits,  especially  pears,  reach  perfection. 

254.  Mineral  Resources  of  Canada.  The  mineral  resources 
of  Canada  almost  match  those  of  the  United  States  in  extent 
and  variety.      (Fig.  173.) 

Most  of  the  metals  exist  in  paying  quantities.  Gold,  copper, 
and  iron  are  found  in  three  regions — the  eastern  provinces,  the 
Lake  Superior  district,  and  the  Cordilleran  Highland.  The 
largest  output  of  gold  is  from  the  Klondike;  of  copper  from 
the  Rossland,  B.  C,  mines;  and  of  iron  from  Nova  Scotia  and 
the  Superior  district.     The  nickel  deposits  around  Sudbury 


248  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

are  the  most  productive  in  the  world;  and  important  silver 
mines,  producing  also  some  cobalt, 1  have  been  opened  in 
northern  Ontario,  Lead  and  the  lesser  metals  are  mined 
chiefly  in  British  Columbia 

Canada  furnishes  much  of  the  mica  used  in  the  United 
States  and  also  controls  the  world's  market  for  asbestos,  the 
principal  mines  being  in  Quebec. 

Petroleum  and  natural  gas  are  produced  to  a  limited  extent 
in  peninsular  Ontario  near  London.  They  also  occur  in  vast 
quantities  along  the  Mackenzie  and  Athabaska  rivers. 

Coal  underlies  three  different  districts:  the  eastern,  in  Nova 
Scotia;  the  central,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rockies;  and 
the  Pacific,  on  the  mainland  and  the  islands  about  Nanaimo. 
The  central  field  is  by  far  the  largest,  though  the  least 
worked  because  without  water  transportation.  It  includes 
lignite  in  the  plains,  from  the  United  States  boundary  to 
the  Mackenzie  River  (where  certain  beds  have  been  afire 
since  1788);  bituminous  coal  at  Lethbridge  and  Crowsnest 
Pass;  and  anthracite  in  the  mountains  around  Banff.  The 
farther  from  the  moimtains,  the  poorer  is  the  coal.  Anthra- 
cite occurs  also  in  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  off  the  Pacific 
coast. 

The  Canadian  coal  fields  (97,200  square  miles)  greatly 
exceed  those  of  all  Europe;  but  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley, 
which  is  in  other  respects  the  best  adapted  for  manufactures, 
is  entirely  destitute  of  coal. 

255.  Manufactures  in  Canada.  Manufactures,  stimulated 
by  a  high  tariff  and  government  bounties,  drew  to  the  cities 
the  larger  part  of  the  increase  of  population  from  1891  to  191 1. 
Canada  has  plainly  taken  a  leaf  from  the  notebook  of  the 
United  States  and  is  striving  for  "autarchy" — the  capacity 
of  providing  for  itself — which  Aristotle  declared  to  be  the 
necessary  condition  of  political  independence. 

Some  industries  enjoy  a  decisive  advantage  from  the  cheap- 
ness of  raw  materials:  for  example,  those  employing  lumber, 

lUscd  mainly  as  a  blue  coloring  material  for  porcelain,  glass,  etc. 


CANADA   AND  NEWFOUNDLAND  249 

grain,  meat,  or  dairy  products.  Another  factor  of  great 
importance  is  water  power,  in  which  Canada  abounds.^  Pulp 
mills  at  the  foot  of  the  forested  Laurentian  Highland  north 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  have  incomparable  advantages  for  paper 
making.  The  abundance  of  hemlock  bark  favors  the  tanning 
of  leather  and  the  manufacture  of  shoes  at  Quebec.  The  con- 
junction of  coal,  iron,  and  limestone  has  favored  the  iron 
industry  at  Sydney,  N.  S.  There  are  also  important  iron 
works  along  the  lakes,  notably  at  Toronto,  Hamilton,  and 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Ont.  These  use  Superior  iron  and  coal 
from   Pennsylvania  and  Ohio, 

Industries  employing  imported  materials,  such  as  cotton, 
wool,  rubber,  and  sugar,  are  most  prominent  at  Montreal. 
These  owe  their  prosperity  entirely  to  the  higher  prices  paid 
by  the  consumers  because  of  the  protective  tariff, 

256.  Transportation  Systems  of  Canada.  Canada  is  emphat- 
ically the  land  of  magnificent  water  ways.  The  northern 
rivers — Yukon,  Mackenzie,  Saskatchewan — are,  it  is  true, 
icebound  much  of  the  year;  but  they  are  nevertheless  of 
value  commercially,  especially  the  Yukon.  Still  more 
important  is  the  St.  Lawrence  system  which,  supplemented 
by  seventy -five  miles  of  fourteen-foot  canals,  carries  good- 
sized  vessels  2,700  miles  inland.  The  Chambly  Canal  connects 
the  St.  Lawrence  with  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson; 
while  the  Ottawa  River  with  the  Rideau  Canal  forms  an 
alternative  route  to  Lake  Ontario. 

In  proportion  to  population,  Canada  has  also  a  very  large 
mileage  of  railways.     (Tables  4  and  5.) 

The  Intercolonial  Railway  is  a  government  venture,  built 
to  connect  Montreal  with  tidewater  without  leaving  Canadian 
territory.  It  was  thus  located  according  to  political  rather 
than  economic  considerations,  and  has  seldom  paid  expenses. 

The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  (1885)  extending  from  St. 
John  to  Vancouver  virtually  opened  the  "northwest  passage" 
so  long  sought  by  mariners  of  all  nations.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  as  you  go  toward  the  pole  each  parallel  of  latitude  forms 


250  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

a  smaller  circle  than  the  last,  the  Canadian  transcontinental 
lines  offer  the  shortest  routes  from  Europe  to  China  and  Japan, 
and  shorter  to  India  than  the  route  around  Africa.  Much 
oriental  commerce  now  reaches  London  over  these  roads,  and 
they  would  become  of  the  greatest  military  importance  to 
England  should  the  Suez  Canal  be  blocked  by  an  enemy. 

The  Grand  Trunk  system  extends  from  Portland, Me., through 
the  central  provinces  to  Chicago,  passing  the  St.  Clair  River  by 
tunnel.  It  has  recently  (19 14)  opened  a  line  from  Moncton, 
N.  B.,  by  way  of  Quebec,  Winnipeg,  and  Edmonton  to  Prince 
Rupert  on  the  Pacific.  This  route  has  easier  grades  and 
traverses  less  arid  land  than  the  Canadian  Pacific.  It  also 
shortens  by  two  days'  sail  the  journey  from  Liverpool  to 
Yokohama. 

A  third  transcontinental  line,  the  Canadian  Northern,  was 
completed  in  191 5  froin  Quebec  to  Port  Mann.  A  branch  is 
also  under  construction,  from  Winnipeg  to  Port  Nelson  on 
Hudson  Bay,  only  2,970  miles  by  sea  from  Liverpool,  forming  a 
new  and  shorter  outlet  for  Canadian  wheat.  Hudson  Bay  is 
ice-free  four  months,  including  the  month  after  harvest. 

An  all-British  cable  links  Canada  with  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  "the  newest  England  in  the  southern  seas." 

257.  Commercial  Centers  of  Canada.  The  commercial 
capital  of  Canada  is  Montreal.  Though  located  nearly  a 
thousand  miles  from  the  sea,  it  is  about  300  miles  nearer 
to  Liverpool  than  is  New  York.  Only  the  freezing  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  has  hindered  Montreal  from  becoming  the 
metropolis  of  the  New  World. 

As  matters  stand,  the  smaller  lake  boats  carry  wheat  from 
Fort  William  and  Port  Arthur  through  the  WcUand  Canal  to 
Kingston,  and  in  some  cases  direct  to  Montreal.  The  larger 
vessels,  however,  being  unable  to  go  through  the  Welland 
Canal,  discharge  their  cargoes  at  Midland,  Depot  Harl^or,  and 
other  ports^   on   Lake   Huron,   especially  on  Georgian  Bay, 

1  Including  Godcrich  on  Lake  Huron;  Collingwood,  Meaford,  Port 
McNicoll,  and  Owen  Sound  on  Georgian  Bay. 


CANADA    AND   NEWFOUNDLAND  25I 

whence  grain  goes  east  by  rail.  Perhaps  a  fifth  of  the  Ameri- 
can export  wheat  also  takes  these  routes  to  the  seaboard. 

It  is  also  estimated  that  thirty-two  miles  of  canal  would 
reopen  an  ancient  natural  channel  from  Georgian  Bay  to  the 
Ottawa  River,  and  so  to  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal.  This 
canal,  effecting  a  great  saving  in  distance  and  cost,  would 
tend  to  sidetrack  Buffalo  and  New  York  in  favor  of  Mon- 
treal as  the  port  of  export  for  all  northwestern  products, 
American  as  well  as  Canadian. 

Quebec,  the  old  capital  of  French  Canada,  became  a  way 
station  as  soon  as  the  St.  Lawrence  was  deepened  for  ocean 
vessels  (30  feet)  to  Montreal.  Its  interests  are  now  manu- 
facturing rather  than  commercial;  but  the  constantly 
increasing  size  of  ships  and  the  bridging  of  the  river  near 
Quebec  cannot  fail  to  restore  much  of  its  commercial  impor- 
tance. Quebec  will,  in  any  event,  become  the  summer  port  of 
the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  and  Canadian  Northern  systems. 

Halifax,  N.  S.,  and  St.  John,  N.  B.,  have  excellent,  ice-free 
harbors;  though  the  high  tides  at  St.  John,  which  serve  to 
break  the  ice,  also  hinder  the  loading  and  unloading  of  vessels. 
Both  cities  are  terminal  points  for  the  Intercolonial  Railway, 
whose  tracks  are  used  by  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  from  Monc- 
ton  to  tidewater.  Owing  to  the  longer  haul  by  land,  these  cities 
are  at  a  disadvantage  compared  with  ports  lying  nearer  the 
interior  like  Montreal  and  New  York;  but  St.  John  is  tending 
to  supplant  Portland  as  the  winter  port  of  Canada  (§149). 
Halifax  is  the  great  Canadian  naval  station  on  the  Atlantic, 
as  the  harbor  of  Esquimalt  is  on  the  Pacific. 

Toronto  was  originally  the  "Place  of  Meeting"  where  the 
portage  began  from  Lake  Ontario  to  Lake  Huron.  It  has  a 
fine  harbor  of  the  barrier  type  (§36),  backed  by  the  rich  lands 
of  the  Ontario  peninsula,  and  is  the  second  city  of  Canada  in 
population. 

The  Georgian  Bay  ports,  located  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Great  Lakes  route,  are  the  Canadian  counterparts  of  Buffalo. 
Fort  William  and  Port  Arthur,   twin  ports  standing  where 


25' 


COMMERCIAL      GEOGRAPHY 


the  Canadian  railways  from  the  West  first  touch  Lake  Superior, 
correspond  to  Duluth-Superior.  Winnipeg,  located  on  the 
edge  of  the  prairies,  where  the  railways  necessarily  converge 
to  pass  around  Lake  Winnipeg  (with  which  it  is  connected  by 
river  and  canal),  corresponds  both  in  position  and  business 
push  to  Chicago.  Edmonton,  at  the  junction  of  navigable 
rivers  and  of  railways,  answers  to  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul. 
Finally,  Vancouver  takes  the  place  of  San  Francisco  and  Prince 
Rupert  of  Puget  Sound. 

258.  The  Commerce  of  Canada.  On  the  whole,  the  basis 
of  Canadian  prosperity  is  still  agriculture,  especially  the  rapid 
extension  of  v/heat  growing  in  the  Northwest.     The  exports 


Ex-ports  by  classes.. 


Imports  by  countries.. 


S5% 

18% 

15% 

75%      5%   12% 

Crop  products 

100  million 
dollars 

Animal 

products 

50 

Forest 

products 

43 

Mineral    S     j,  2 

products    ~     at" 
44           C    ^£ 

62%                                           23%          2%    13% 

From  United  States 
gSC  million  dollars 

Great  Britain  - 
106 

All 
otliers 

57 

Data  from  Canada  Year  Book,  1913 

Fig.    174.     Commerce    of    Canada.     Totals    {millions   of   dollars):  export 
of  home  produce,  288  {49.9%  to  Great  Britain,  37.8%  io 
U.  S.);  imports,  460,  chiefly  manufactures. 

of  Canada  are  therefore  chiefly  food  and  raw  materials,  while 
the  imports  are  largely  manufactured  goods.     (Fig.  174.) 

In  proportion  to  population,  Canada  is  one  of  the  best  cus- 
tomers of  the  United  States ;  though  Canadian  products  have 
been  heavily  taxed  in  American  markets.  (Table  4.)  Canada 
fronts  the  United  States  for  over  3,000  miles.  On  both  sides 
of  this  artificial  line  are  found  the  same  race  and  language. 
The  resources  of  the  two  countries  are  largely  complementary. 
Thus  New  England  needs  coal  from  Nova  vScotia;  middle 
Canada  needs  coal  from  Pennsylvania.  Moreover,  the  lumber 
and  ores  of  Canada  are  becoming  indispensable  in  the  United 
States,  while  Canada  requires  the  products  of  our  factories. 
Two  countries  were  never  more  clearly  dependent  on  each 
other  for  the  highest  prosperity. 


CANADA   AND  NEWFOUNDLAND  253 

The  United  States  plainly  missed  its  opportunity  when  it 
broke  ofE  the  reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada  (1866).  Canada 
now  taxes  American  manufactures  a  third  more  than  British 
goods;  and  Canadians  are  a  unit  in  desiring  either  the  present 
British  connection  or  absolute  independence. 

259.  Newfoundland.  Newfoundland  is  the  oldest  British 
colony  (1583).  Having  so  far  refused  to  join  Canada,  it  is 
self-governing,  subject  only  to  Great  Britain.  The  population 
is  still  small,  though  the  island  is  as  large  (42,734  square 
miles)  as  Ohio.  The  eastern  part  of  Labrador  is  also  attached 
politically  to  Newfoundland. 

The  exclusive  fishing  rights  claimed  by  the  French  on  a 
large  part  of  the  shore,  which  long  hindered  the  development 
of  the  colony,  have  been  given  up  (1904);  but  France  still 
holds  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  which  serve  as  retreats  for 
fishing  vessels. 

The  surface  of  the  island  is  broken,  the  coast  line  indented, 
and  the  climate  raw  and  prolific  in  fogs  on  account  of  the 
Labrador  Current,  with  its  procession  of  icebergs.  However, 
the  climate  is  better  on  the  west  coast,  where  the  valleys  have 
some  good  farming  land  and  heavy  timber.  The  mineral 
resources  are  considerable,  iron  and  copper  ore  being  now 
mined.  Fishing  is  still  the  leading  industry,  though  agri- 
culture is  receiving  increased  attention.  The  exports  are 
chiefly  fish  and  ores;  the  imports,  foodstuffs  and  manufactures. 

The  interests  of  Newfoundland  incline  to  the  United  States, 
which  offers  a  better  natural  market  for  fish  than  Canada;  but 
a  continued  refusal  to  admit  fish  untaxed  must  eventually 
drive  Newfoundland  into  the  arms  of  Canada. 

A  railroad  crosses  the  island,  connecting  by  steamer  with 
Cape  Breton.  St.  Johns,  the  capital,  only  1,650  miles  from 
Ireland,  is  thus  in  effect  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  railroad 
system  of  North  America. 


XVIII— MIDDLE   AMERICA  AND  THE  WEST  INDIES 

260.  The  American  Mediterranean.  The  great  inclosed 
basins  of  the  Caribbean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  forming  the 
American  Mediterranean  (Fig.  194),  are  exceeded  in  their 
extent  and  the  richness  of  their  bordering  lands  only  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  of  the  Old  World  and  by  the  Sea  of  Japan. ■^ 

261.  Physical  Features  of  Middle  America.  Middle  America 
consists  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  which  are  very  much 
alike  in  topography,  climate,  and  population.  Mexico  (Fig. 
182)  consists  in  the  main  of  a  lofty  plateau  (6,000-8,000  feet) 
inclosed  between  loftier  mountains  and  traversed  from  east  to 
west,  in  the  latitude  of  Vera  Cruz,  by  a  belt  of  towering 
volcanoes.  (Fig.  175.)  The  range  traversing  Lower  California 
also  reappears  on  the  mainland  northwest  of  Manzanillo. 

East  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  where  the  mountain 
system  of  North  America  really  ends  and  a  strait  formerly 
connected  the  oceans,  the  general  trend  of  the  mountains 
both  on  the  mainland  and  the  Greater  Antilles  is  east  and 
west.  Here,  too,  there  are  lofty  plateaus,  but  separated  by 
deep  depressions  in  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Panama, 
where    other   straits   formerly   connected   the   oceans. 

The  climate  is  governed  chiefly  by  elevation  and  exposure 

to  the  prevailing  northeast  trade  wind.     The  climatic   zones 

are   thus  vertically   disposed,  rising   from   tropical   lowlands 

through  all  gradations  of  climate  to  peaks  clad  in  perpetual 

snow.     (Fig.  176.)      Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  the  northeast 

trade  wind  and  the  nearer  approach  of  the  equatorial  belt  of 

calms  and  rains  in  summer,  the  rainfall  is  greatest,  and  is  in 

fact  excessive,  on  the  Caribbean  slope,  especially  in  summer; 

it  is  least  on  the  Pacific  slope,  and  in  winter.     It  also  increases 

gradually  toward   the   south.      Yucatan  and   the  plateau  of 

'Shaler,  Sea  atid  Land,  ("The  Formation  and  Preservation  of 
Harbors,"  ch.  6). 

(»S4) 


MIDDLE  AMERICA   AND   THE   WEST  INDIES 


255 


northern  Mexico  are,  however,  arid,  like  other  tracts  in  the 
trade-wind  zones  which  lack  mountains  to  condense  moisture. 
By  reason  of  cooler  climate,  the  lofty  plateau  containing 
the  City  of  Mexico  has  been  the  seat  of  power,  alike  under  the 
Aztecs  and  the  Spaniards.  In  Central  America  most  of  the 
population  and  agriculture  are  confined  to  the  similar  lofty 
plateaus  of  Guatemala  and  Costa  Rica,  together  with  the 
narrow  volcanic  zone  along  the  Pacific,  which  are  relatively 
cool  and  somewhat  sheltered  from  the  trade  wind.  (Fig.  78.) 


Mexican  Table-land. 

After  Conkling 

Fig.  175.     Profile  view  of  Mexico. 

262.  The  Inhabitants  of  Middle  America.  The  Spaniards 
conquered  (15  21)  but  never  effectively  colonized  Mexico  or 
Central  America.  They  merely  reduced  the  natives  to  serf- 
dom, imposing  themselves  as  a  ruling  class.  They  were, 
moreover,  for  the  most  part  adventurers,  who  came  without 
families  and  married  Indian  women.  The  Indian  element 
thus  retains  an  overwhelming  preponderance,  even  in  Mexico; 
while  in  Central  America,  except  on  the  lofty  plateau  of  Costa 
Rica,  practically  the  entire  population  consists  of  Indians  and 
half-breeds  of  various  degrees,  together  with  some  negroes 
along  the  coasts.      (Fig.  178.) 

This  predominance  of  races  fresh  from  barbarism  doubtless 
goes  far  to  explain  the  turbulence  and  corruption  of  most  of 
these  states.  Such  conditions  have  severely  limited  industry 
and  commerce.  Volcanoes  and  earthquakes  are  less  destructive 
than  perpetual  revolution. 

In  Mexico  a  despot  arose  strong  and  enlightened  enough 
to  enforce  peace  and  favor  commerce;  but  after  Diaz  came  in- 
deed the  deluge — a  series  of  violent  and  destructive  revolutions. 


256 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


263.  Products  of  the  Soil  in  Middle  America.  In  point  of 
size,  Mexico  about  equals  the  southern  section  of  the  United 
States,  while  Central  America  equals  the  Atlantic  states  north 
of  the  Potomac.  The  products  depend,  however,  less  on  the 
latitude  than  on  the  elevation  and  rainfall.  (Figs.  78  and  176.) 
The  first  agricultural  industry  established  by  the  Spaniards 
was  cattle  raising.  This  is  still  of  much  importance.  The 
Mexican  plateau  north  of  20°  is,  indeed,  a  natural  range  coun- 
try ;  and  so  are  the  well-grassed  plateaus  in  Central  America 

wherever  shielded  from 
the  trade  wind.  Hon- 
duras and  Nicaragua 
are  largely  occupied  by 
cattle  ranches,  while 
the  higher  plateaus  in 
Mexico  and  Guatemala 
pasture  sheep.  The 
quality  of  stock  is 
everywhere  poor,  owing 
to  lack  of  care,  for  this 
is  the  land  of  manana 
— to-morrow. 

The  low-lying,  hot 
country  (tierra  caliente) 
is    fever-haunted ;    but 


/Paramos\ 

above 
q, 000  feet 


Tierra  Fria  or 

Cool  Zone 

fbpoo  -  Q^ooo  feet.b4to  54°  1 


Tierra  Templada  or 

^Temperate  Zone,  3.000  -  b^ooo  feei^ 

mean  temperature  72°-  64°  F. 


Tierra  Calie7ite  or  Hot  Lands 

o  ~  j,ooo  feet  elei'ation, 

7nean  tetiiperature  82"-  72°  F. 


Fig.  176.      Vertical  zones  of  climate  in 

tropical  A  merica.  The  elevations  given 

are  merely  approximate,   as  usage 

varies  in  differ e^tt  localities. 


the  soil  is  very  rich  and  vegetation  never  ceases  growth. 
Here  are  found,  especially  along  the  Caribbean,  dense  forests 
producing  mahogany,  rosewood,  cedar,  logwood  and  fustic 
(both  yielding  dyes),  rubber,  chicle  (used  in  chewing  gum) ,  and 
in  Salvador  a  medicinal  substance  called  "balsam  of  Peru." 
The  cultivated  products  which  enter  commerce  are  chiefly 
sugar  and  cocoa  along  the  Pacific,  bananas  and  cocoanuts 
along  the  Caribbean,  indigo  in  Salvador,  and  vanilla  around 
Vera  Cruz. 

The   zone   of  medium   elevation   and  temperature    (tierra 
templada)  will  raise  sugar  cane  and  wheat  side  by  side.     Its 


MIDDLE  AMERICA   AND   THE  WEST  INDIES 


257 


distinctive  crop,  however,  is  coffee,  grown  chiefly  in  southern 
Mexico  and  in  Central  America  along  the  Pacific.  Tobacco 
and  cotton  are  of  some  importance,  especially  in  Mexico. 
Most  of  the  Mexican  cotton  comes  from  the  irrigated  lake 
(Laguna)  district  near  Lerdo.  The  leading  food  crops  of  this 
zone,  and  indeed  of  Middle  America  as  a  whole,  are  corn  and 
red  beans  (frijoles).  Chick-peas  (garbanzos)  are  an  article  of 
export  to  Spain,  especially  from  Mexico. 

The  cool  zone  (tierra  jria)  consists  of  lofty  plateaus  which 
are  in  effect  pieces  of  the  Temperate  zone  set  down  in  the  midst 


'■'■*"•: 

\  f    m  mm  Mi    V 

'\      V  i»  mm m  Mr    j^ 

^ 

k 

W\  it 

WmmA 

y 

^^1 

m 

^^ 

i 

lisp 

1      "m." 

M 

'Vr'"  ', 

-.  ^^^','f 

Fig.  177.     Cutting  agave  leaves  for  sisal  fiber  in  Yucatan. 

of  the  Tropics.     In  this  zone  most  of  the  temperate  crops  and 

fruits  are  grown,  but  mainly  for  local  consumption.      (Fig.  176.) 

In  dry  districts,  at  various  elevations,  several  species  of 

agaves    (Fig.    177)    or   century   plants    are   very  extensively 

cultivated,  one  species  yielding  sisal  fiber,  another  Tampico  or 

ixtle  fiber,  and  a  third  the  national  drink  of  Mexico.  ^       The 

chief  center  of  sisal  culture  is  Yucatan,  where  the  plant  is 

'Called  pulque  and  consisting  of  the  fermented  juice  of  the  Agave 
Americana.  .A  stronger  liquor,  mescal,  is  made  by  distillation  of 
agave  roots. 


258  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

indigenous.  Now  that  a  gin  has  been  invented  for  extracting 
the  fiber,  sisal  has  become  a  great  crop  where  Httle  else  will 
grow.  In  arid  parts  of  the  Mexican  plateau,  especially  around 
Torreon,  is  also  found  a  shrub  {guayule)  which  has  become  im- 
portant as  a  source  of  rubber. 

Mexican  and  Central  American  coffee,  being  far  superior 
to  Brazilian,  is  marketed  chiefly  in  Europe.  This  fact  is 
unfavorable  to  the  development  of  import  trade  from  the 
United  States. 

264.  Other  Natural  Resources  of  Middle  America.  Valu- 
able pearl  fisheries  exist  in  the  Gulf  of  California  and  Nicoya 
Bay,  yielding  pearls  and  pearl  shells  for  export. 

It  was  the  wealth  of  Mexico  in  precious  metals  that  attracted 
Cortes  and  his  soldiers  of  fortune.  Under  the  Diaz  regime 
much  American  capital  was  invested  in  Mexican  mines  and 
railways. 

Silver,  zinc,  and  lead  are  abundant  on  the  Mexican  plateau^; 
and  there  has  been  a  phenomenal  development  of  copper 
mining  in  the  Cananea  district  and  in  Lower  California. 
Mexico  led  the  world  in  the  production  of  silver,  and  ranked 
next  to  the  United  States  in  copper.  (Fig.  138.)  Iron  is  also 
abundant,  notably  in  the  famous  "iron  mountain"  near 
Durango;  though  the  high  cost  of  fuel  has  hitherto  restricted 
its  use.  Gold  occurs  in  paying  quantities  on  the  Pacific  slope, 
a  continuation  of  the  California  gold  fields. 

In  Central  America,  some  gold  "diggings"  have  been  opened 
on  the  Caribbean  slope  in  Nicaragua,  and  veins  of  silver  in 
Honduras.  But  the  rich  mineral  resources  of  Central  America 
are  largely  undeveloped,  owing  to  lack  of  transportation 
facilities  and  to  repeated  revolutions. 

Of  the  non-metallic  substances,  coal,  petroleum,  salt,  sul- 
phur, and  precious  stones  (opals  and  onyx)  are  worked  in 
Mexico,  petroleum  especially  near  Vera  Cruz  and  coal  around 
Sabinas.  Along  the  Gulf  of  California  is  a  field  of  anthracite 
believed  to  equal  that  of  Pennsylvania.  Mexico,  however,  still 
imports  much  coal. 

1  Around  Guanajuato,  Zacatecas,  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  Chihuahua. 


MIDDLE  AMERICA    AND   THE  WEST  INDIES  259 

265.  Manufactures  of  Mexico  and  Central  America.    The 

Aztecs  and  Mayas,  the  chief  Indian  tribes,  were  skillful  arti- 
sans; and  to  them,  rather  than  to  the  conquering  Spaniards, 
is  due  the  characteristic  handiwork  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America.  Examples  are  the  Mexican  lace  and  drawn  work, 
especially  at  Aguascalientes,  the  carved  and  inlaid  woods, 
the  feather  goods,  pottery,  jewelry,  waxwork,  blankets,  cloaks 
(serapes),  and  Yucatan  hammocks,  which  have  made  Mexico 
famous.  Leather  goods,  on  the  other  hand,  were  introduced  by 
the  Spaniards,  though  a  native  tanning  agent  {cascalote  pods) 
is  chiefly  employed.  The  pottery  industry  centers  at  Guad- 
alajara and  leather  working  at  Leon. 

Manufacturing  by  power  machinery  has  been  hindered  by 
the  scarcity  and  high  price  of  fuel;  but  recently  the  waterfalls 
at  the  edge  of  the  Mexican  plateau  have  begun  to  be  used  as 
a  source  of  power.  There  are  upward  of  150  textile  mills, 
consuming  all  the  domestic  cotton  and  some  from  the  United 
States.  The  leading  textile  center  is  Puebla.^  Modem  blast 
furnaces,  burning  coke,  have  been  estabhshed  at  Monterrey, 
near  the  Sabinas  coal  field. 

266.  Transportation  in  Middle  America.  Toward  the 
Gulf  and  Caribbean,  the  land  descends  by  a  series  of  broad 
terraces,  ending  in  a  flat  coast  devoid  of  deep  natural  harbors. 
Vera  Cruz,  partially  sheltered  by  small  islands,  and  the  river 
ports,  Tampico  and  Puerto  Mexico  (Coatzacoalcos) ,  all  required 
costly  works  to  render  them  safe  and  accessible  to  large 
vessels.  Vera  Cruz  has  long  been  the  chief  commercial  port, 
being  the  nearest  outlet  of  the  fertile  plateau  around  the  capi- 
tal; but  Tampico  has  a  better  harbor  and  climate,  and  easier 
grades  up  to  the  plateau.  It  has  also  connection  through  a 
canal  and  lagoon  with  Tuxpan,  and  since  the  development  of 
the  oil  fields  its  commerce  exceeds  that  of  Vera  Cruz.  Puerto 
Mexico,  being  the  Gulf  terminus  of  an  interoceanic  railway  only 
192  miles  long,  with  a  summit  level  of  only  924  feet,  had  a  great 

^Both  cotton  and  wool  are  woven  at  Puebla;  wool  also  at  Aguas- 
calientes. 


26o  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

transit  trade  before  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal.  This 
route  may  continue  to  hold  the  mail,  passenger,  and  perishable 
goods  traffic,  since  there  is  a  saving  of  some  four  days  over  the 
Panama  route. 

In  Central  America  north  of  Panama,  the  chief  gateways  of 
trade  on  the  Caribbean  are  Puerto  Barrios  in  Guatemala,  and 
Limon  in  Costa  Rica,^  each  the  terminus  of  a  railway  line 
which  brings  the  Pacific  within  a  few  days  of  New  Orleans. 
(Fig.  194.)  These  railways,  drawing  trade  toward  the  Carib- 
bean, are  favorable  to  the  commerce  of  the  United  States. 
They  are,  in  fact,  largely  controlled  by  Americans  interested 
in  the  banana  trade. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  of  Mexico  there  are  some  good  harbors, 
but  mostly  backed  by  precipitous  mountains  and  difficult 
of  access  from  the  Mexican  plateau.  (Fig.  175.)  This  is  the 
case  at  Acapulco,  the  best  natural  harbor  on  that  coast.  The 
principal  commercial  ports  are  Guaymas,  reached  by  the 
Southern  Pacific;  Manzanillo,  now  connected  by  rail  with 
Tampico;  and  Salina  Cruz,  on  an  artificial  harbor  at  the 
terminus  of  the  Tehuantepec  National  Railway.  (Fig.  182,) 
A  trunk-line  railway  along  the  Pacific  coast  has  been  built 
from  Guaymas  through  Mazatlan  and  Guadalajara;  and  a 
branch  of  the  Tehuantepec  Railway  extends  along  the  coast  to 
the  Guatemalan  frontier.  Several  other  ports  seem  assured 
of  through  railways,  especially  Topolobampo,  the  port  of  the 
partially  completed  Kansas  City,  Mexico  &  Orient  system. 
All  these  railway  extensions  are  due  chiefly  to  the  Panama 
Canal,  which  will  for  the  first  time  effectively  open  the  eastern 
Pacific  to  commerce.^ 

iThe  Limon  line,  170  miles  long,  has  a  sumrpit  level  of  5,040  feet;  and 
the  Barrios  line,  271  miles  in  length,  also  has  a  high  summit  level. 

2The  "great  circle"  or  shortest  route  from  Panama  to  Hawaii  hugs 
the  shore  almost  to  San  Francisco.  This  fact  will  necessarily  render 
the  Pacific  ports  of  Mexico  commercially  important.  It  also  gives  new 
value  to  the  United  States  coaling  station  near  La  Paz  (acquired  1868); 
though  naval  authorities  insist  that  Bahia  de  la  Magdalena  is  far  pref- 
erable and  in  fact  indispensable  for  naval  purposes.  (See  Rear  Admiral 
Bradford,  Forum,  Feb.,  1899.) 


MIDDLE   AMERICA    AND   THE    WEST  INDIES 


261 


In  Central  America,  owing  to  the  location  of  agriculture  and 
population,  the  Pacific  ports  handle  a  relatively  large  volume 
of  trade.  They  are,  however,  mostly  roadsteads  exposed  to 
the  open  sea.^ 

Internal  transportation  is  extremely  difficult.  There  are 
no  navigable  rivers  of  importance,  and  few  roads  except  mule 
paths.  Many  a  promising  mining  enterprise  has  failed  because 
machinery  could  not  reach  the  mines.  Everything,  therefore, 
depends  upon  railroads — the  "iron  rivers'*  of  this  region. 
The  Mexican  government,  in  order  not  to  be  at  the  mercy  of 


Population  tiy  races 


Imports  by  countries 


Exports  by  articles 

Data  from  Statemau's  Year  Booka,  1909-13 

Fig.  178.     Races  and  commerce  oj  Mexico.     Totals:  population,  in  IQIO, 

15,160,369;  commerce,  five-year  average  (millions  of  dollars): 

exports,  JJ5  {76%  to  U.  S.);  imports,  gi,  chiefly  coal, 

foodstuffs,  and  manufactures. 

private  interests,  consequently  bought  enough  stock  to  control 
the  principal  railways  reaching  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Republic^ 
and  proceeded  to  operate  them  as  a  single  system. 

267.  Commerce  of  Middle  America.  The  exports  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America  are  for  the  most  part  metals, 
hides,  and  crude  products  of  the  forest  and  plantation;  while 
the  imports  are  foods  and  manufactured  goods. 

In    Mexico,    because    of    proximity,    extensive    American 

KSo  all  in  Guatemala,  and  all  in  Salvador  except  El  Triunfo  and  La 
Union.  The  best  are  Amapala  on  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  Corinto,  and 
Puntarenas. 

2This  government  "merger,"  called  the  National  Railways  of  Mexico, 
includes,  besides  the  Tehuantepcc,  which  was  built  by  the  government, 
the  Vera  Cruz  and  Pacific,  the  Central,  National,  International,  and 
Interoceanic  lines. 


262  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

investments,  and  the  several  trunk  lines  of  railways  connecting 
with  American  roads,  the  United  States  has  the  largest  trade. 
(Fig.  178.)  Europe,  however,  still  supplies  many  lines  of 
manufactures  in  Mexico,  and  has  almost  a  monopoly  in  parts  of 
Central  America.  The  reason  no  doubt  is,  in  large  part,  that 
Spaniards  handle  the  trade  of  Mexico;  and  that  the  British 
handle  the  trade  of  Central  America.  The  British  also  own 
many  of  the  plantations,  aside  from  the  banana  orchards;  and 
landed  property  is  everywhere  the  true  basis  of  power. 

268.  The  West  Indies.  The  West  Indies  consist  of  several 
mountain  ranges,  partially  submerged,  which  if  revealed  in 
their  whole  majestic  height  would  equal  the  Himalayas.  The 
outlying  Bermudas  and  Bahamas  are,  however,  of  coral  for- 
mation. The  climate,  except  in  these  outlying  groups,  is 
thoroughly  tropical,  though  all  the  larger  islands  contain 
temperate  uplands,  especially  Haiti,  which  by  a  strange  freak 
of  fortune  has  become  the  black  man's  second  home. 

Owing  to  the  trade  wind,  nearly  all  the  towns  in  the  Lesser 
Antilles  lie  on  the  sheltered  western  shore. 

269.  The  Inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies,  Most  of  the 
natives  on  the  islands  speedily  perished  under  the  yoke  of 
slavery.  The  ground  was  thus  apparently  cleared  for  a 
white  laboring  population.  The  cultivation  of  sugar  cane, 
however,  fastened  African  slavery  upon  the  West  Indies,  as 
cotton  did  upon  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States;  and 
in  many  of  the  islands,  especially  the  French,  the  whites  have 
merged  in  a  common  mulatto  population.^ 

The  West  Indies  are  consequently,  with  the  exception  of 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  and  the  little  Dutch  island  of  Saba,2  as 
overwhelmingly  African  as  Central  America  is  Indian  in 
population. 

'Doubtless  because  in  the  West  Indies,  as  in  Mexico,  a  person  hav- 
ing any  white  blood  whatsoever  passes  for  white,  while  the  color  line 
is  drawn  between  the  mixed-bloods  and  the  full-blooded  negroes  or 
Indians. 

'Inhabited  by  English-speaking  Dutch  boat  builders  and  fishermen, 
who  seem  to  thrive  despite  the  tropical  climate. 


MIDDLE  AMERICA   AND   THE  WEST  INDIES  263 

270.  The  British  West  Indies.  For  more  than  three  cen- 
turies the  West  Indies  have  been  "the  grand  arena  of  the 
war  of  nations."  Every  island  consequently  has  a  history  as 
varied  as  a  separate  country.  Being  thus  the  prize  of  naval 
victory,  most  of  them  have  been  acquired  by  England  through 
her  overmastering  sea  power.  The  British  possessions 
include  the  Bermudas,  Bahamas,  Jamaica  with  its  depen- 
dencies, and  the  bulk  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  extending  like  an 
arch  from  Porto  Rico  to  Trinidad.       (Table  4.) 

For  nearly  a  century,  however,  the  West  Indies  have  been 
undergoing  economic  deca3^  Emancipation  left  the  estates 
without  efficient  laborers;  for  the  freed  negroes  generally 
''squatted"  on  vacant  lands,  cultivating  little  patches  of  yams 
and  sweet  potatoes,  and  refusing  to  work  regularly  on  the 
plantations.  Then  the  competition  of  European  beet  sugar 
ruined  the  cane-sugar  industry,  except  in  Cuba;  and  even 
there  it  produced  the  insurrection  which  led  to  the  Spanish- 
American  War.  Much  land  once  worth  several  hundred 
dollars  an  acre  has  consequently  reverted  to  jungle. 

271.  The  Bermudas  and  Bahamas.  The  Bermudas  are 
commercially  dependent  on  New  York,  exporting  early  pota- 
toes and  onions,  besides  lily  bulbs.  Their  importance  to 
England  is  strategic  rather  than  commercial,  consisting  in  their 
position  near  the  American  coast  and  their  harbor,  "difficult 
to  enter,  secure  when  entered."  The  Bermudas  are  conse- 
quently a  coaling  and  naval  station,  heavily  fortified,  forming 
one  of  England's  principal  ocean  strongholds. 

The  Bahamas,  being  of  coral  formation,  are  low  and  there- 
fore rather  dry.  The  leading  exports  are  sponges,  salt,  and 
ambergris^  from  the  sea,  sisal  and  pineapples  from  the  soil. 
Like  the  Bermudas,  the  Bahamas  are  a  favorite  winter  resort 
for  Americans.  The  harbor  of  Nassau,  though  shallow,  has 
an  admirable  location  on  the  Strait  of  Florida  and  very  near 
the  mainland. 

'A  peculiar  substance  from  the  sperm  whale  which  commands  a 
high  price  as  an  ingredient  in  —  perfumes! 


264  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

272.  The  Lesser  Antilles  and  Jamaica.  In  the  West  Indies 
proper,  there  are  also  some  low  islands,  such  as  Barbuda, 
which,  lacking  mountains  to  serve  as  "rain  condensers,"  pro- 
duce chiefly  salt  and  guano,  besides  scanty  pasturage. 

On  most  of  the  West  Indies  the  planters  are  still  trying  to 
raise  sugar  cane;  but  only  the  island  of  Barbados  makes  it  pay, 
through  having  a  dense  population  and  therefore  abundant 
labor,  and  Trinidad,  through  the  use  of  Hindu  coolies.  The 
most  promising  crops  for  small  islands  and  small  farmers, 
since  they  require  neither  expensive  mills  (for  which  adequate 
producing  acreage  is  not  available)  like  sugar,  nor  rapid  trans- 
portation like  fruit,  are  sea-island  cotton  on  the  plains,  cocoa 
on  the  lower  slopes  (below  1,500  feet),  and  coffee  on  the  moun- 
tains. Cotton  has  accordingly  become  important  in  St.  Vin- 
cent, Antigua,  and  most  of  the  smaller  islands;  as  have  cocoa 
in  Trinidad  and  Grenada;  coffee  in  Jamaica,  which  ranks  next  to 
Haiti  in  this  crop;  limes  for  the  preparation  of  lime  juice  in 
Dominica  and  Montserrat ;  nutmegs  in  Grenada;  and  bananas, 
oranges,  and  cocoanuts  in  Jamaica.  In  addition  to  fruit  and 
coffee,  Jamaica  exports  pimento  or  allspice  (native  to  that 
island),  ginger,  logwood,  and  annatto  —  the  latter  only  too 
familiar  in  the  beautiful- golden  tint  imparted  by  its  use  to  much 
creamery  butter.  The  pitch  lake  of  Trinidad  furnishes  much 
of  the  asphalt  used  in  American  pavements,  and  associated 
with  the  pitch  are  considerable  oil  deposits. 

273.  Principal  Ports  of  the  British  West  Indies.  The 
British  islands,  like  the  French,  have  excellent  roads  and 
several  short  railways.  They  also  contain  a  number  of  fine 
harbors.  Barbados,  though  not  well  sheltered,  is  by  reason 
of  its  location  the  headquarters  of  the  British  Royal  Mail 
steamship  line,  which  makes  the  circuit  of  the  West  Indies. 
Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad,  is  likewise  by  reason  of  its  location 
the  transhipment  port  of  the  Orinoco  Valley.  Kingston  Har- 
bor, Jamaica,  is  situated  in  the  very  center  of  the  American 
Mediterranean,  on  the  direct  route  from  New  York  to  the 
Panama  Canal.     Castries  Harbor,  St.  Lucia,  an  ancient  crater 


MIDDLE  AMERICA    AND  THE    WEST  INDIES  265 

with  narrow  entrance  between  towering  rocks,  is  another 
fortified  outpost  of  the  British  Empire. 

274.  The  Island  of  Haiti.  The  island  of  Haiti,  after  Cuba 
the  largest  and  most  fertile  in  the  West  Indies,  is  divided 
between  a  French-speaking  negro  state  (Haiti)  in  the  west 
end,  and  a  Spanish-speaking  mulatto  state,  the  Dominican 
Republic  (Santo  Domingo),  in  the  east.  Both  were  so  dis- 
orderly and  so  deeply  in  debt  that  only  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
has  hitherto  prevented  the  occupation  of  the  island  by  some 
European  power.  The  two  republics  have  become  practically 
protectorates  of  the  United  States,  their  customs  revenues  being 
administered  by  American  officials,  as  a  measure  of  protection 
against  foreign  creditors  and  domestic  revolutionists. 

The  forested  mountains  contain  all  the  usual  cabinet  and 
dye  woods  (§263),  also  ebony  and  satin  wood.  The  forests  are 
the  largest  natural  resource  of  the  island.  Haiti  has  in  addi- 
tion the  best  pasturage  in  the  West  Indies ;  though  the  export 
of  hides  only  about  equals  the  export  of  beeswax.  Many 
kinds  of  mineral  deposits  are  reported,  but  their  commercial 
value  remains  to  be  determined. 

The  principal  export  crops  are  coffee  in  the  west,  cocoa  in  the 
east,  and  sugar  in  the  south.  Others  are  tobacco  in  the  Puerto 
Plato  district,  and  cotton  from  a  tree  growing  wild.  Banana 
plantations  have  been  set  out  by  Americans.  The  trade  of 
the  country  is  mostly  handled  by  the  United  States. 

Aside  from  several  short  railways,  the  principal  means  of 
land  transportation  is  the  patient  donkey.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  good  harbors.  Bahia  de  Samana  and  Mole  St. 
Nicolas,  which  the  United  States  once  sought  to  acquire  for 
naval  purposes,^  are  deep,  safe,  and  defensible,  the  one  facing 
the  Mona  and  the  other  the  Windward  Passage.  Other 
natural  harbors  are  found  at  Puerto  Plata  and  Cap  Haitien 
on  the  north,  and  Port  au  Prince  on  the  west,  coast.  These 
three  are  the  principal  centers  of  commerce. 

1  Under  Grant  and  Hayes,  respectively.  In  1869  the  Dominican  Re- 
public voted  in  favor  of  annexation  to  the  United  States,  but  the  treaty 
failed  in  the  United  States  Senate. 


266 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


275.  The  French  West  Indies.  The  French  West  Indies 
consist  of  Guadeloupe,  Martinique,  and  their  dependencies, 
including  the  outlying  islands  of  St.  Barthelemy  and  half  the 
island  of  St.  Alartin.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that  all 
the  islands — American,  Dutch,  and  French — between  Culebra 
and  Guadeloupe  are  English-speaking,  while  all  the  islands 
from  Guadeloupe  south  are  French-speaking,  except  Barbados. 
The  leading  exports  of  the  islands  are  sugar,  coffee,  and  cocoa. 

The  French  islands  have  fared  somewhat  better  com- 
mercially than  the  English,  as  their  products  are  protected  in 
the  French  market.  Yet  they  have  suffered  like  all  the  others 
from  the  division  of  the  West  Indies  among  several  European 
nations,  which  hinders  intcr-island  trade,  and  from  the  lack 
of  free  trade  with  the  United  States,  their  natural  market. 

The  French  steamship  line  and  the  French  navy  make 
their  West  Indian  headquarters  at  Fort  de  France,  on  a  broad 
but  shallow  bay.  There  is  also  a  fortified  naval  and  coaling 
station  inclosed  by  small  islands  near  Guadeloupe. 

276.  The  American  Virgin  Islands.  The  American  Virgin 
Islands  consist  of  three  islands  near  Porto  Rico.  They  were 
acquired  by  the  United  States  in  1917  by  purchase  from 
Denmark.  Ste.  Croix,  the  largest  of  the  islands,  produces 
sugar,  while  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John  are  interested  in  live- 
stock products,  growing  also  bay  trees  for  the  preparation  of 
bay  rum.  St.  Thomas  is  "the  keystone  of  the  Antilleaa 
arch."  Lying  on  the  Anc;.':ada  Passage,  the  most  direct  route 
from  Europe,  it  is  the  cable,  coaling,  and  commercial  center 
of   the   eastern   Caribbean.     Moreover,   its  harbor  is   secure. 

The  United  States  tried  in  1867  and  1902  to  buy  these 
islands,  but  negotiations  failed.  After  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War  (19 14)  and  the  entrance  of  the  United  States 
into  it  (1917)  a  third  attempt  was  successful  (1917).^ 

277.  The  Dutch  West  Indies.  The  Dutch  West  Indies 
include  two  widely-separated  groups,  both  English-speaking. 

iThe  first  treaty,  negotiated  by  vSeward,  was  defeated  in  Congress 
(J867) ;  the  second  failed  of  ratification  by  Denmark  (1902). 


MIDDLE  AMERICA   AND   THE   WEST  INDIES 


267 


One  consists  of  St.  Eustatius  (which  served  as  a  depot  of  sup- 
pHes  for  the  Americans  during  the  Revolution),  Saba,  and 
half  of  St.  Martin — all  near  Porto  Rico;  the  other  includes 
Curagao  cind  two  adjacent  islands  off  the  Venezuelan  coast. 
The  latter  group  produces  chiefly  salt,  phosphates,  and  goat- 
skins, besides  a  limited  amount  of  gold.  • 

"Spotless  Curagao,"  the  cleanest  place  in  the  West  Indies, 
is  remarkably  healthful  as  it  lies  outside  the  belt  of  heavy 


Fig.  179.     Harbor  of  Curacao.     The  vessel  has  just  come 
through  the  narrow  entrance  at  the  right,  while  beyond 
is  a  fort  crowning  the  hill. 

coastal  rains,  and  it  has  a  splendid  landlocked  harbor,  with 

deep  water  close  to  the  shore.  (Fig.  179.)     This  is  the  great 

center  of  transit  trade  with  the  ports  of  South  America  on 

the  Caribbean.     Moreover,  naval  authorities  have  pointed  out 

that  it  commands  all  routes  to  Panama  passing  east  or  south 

of  Porto  Rico.^ 

Now  that  the  Panama  Canal  is  open,  all  the  West  Indies, 

and  more  especially  the  islands  of  the  two   Dutch   groups, 

lie  no  longer  on  a  back  eddy  but  on  a  main  current  of  the 

world's  commerce. 

1  See  Mahan,  Interest  of  America  in  Sea  Power,  and  Rear  Admiral  Brad- 
ford, in  the  Forum,  Feb.,  1899. 


XIX— TROPICAL  SOUTH  AMERICA 

278.  South  America  as  a  Whole.  On  a  globe  South 
America  appears^  like  North  America  shorn  of  its  peninsulas, 
islands,  and  gulfs.  It  has,  like  North  America,  three  moun- 
tain sytems,  the  Guiana  Mountains  resembling  the  Laurentian 
Highland;  and  two  great  rivers,  the  Amazon  corresponding 
in  position  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  La  Plata,  to  the 
Mississippi.     (Fig.  181.) 

The  interior  plain  in  South  America  is,  however,  lower  than 
in  North  America,  while  the  Andes  are  both  higher  and  steeper 
than  the  Rockies.  South  America,  has,  in  fact,  a  larger  pro- 
portion (42  per  cent)  of  lowlands  un^er  600  feet  elevation, 
and  a  larger  proportion  (6  per  cent)  of  highlands  above  10,000 
feet,  than  any  other  continent. 

In  consequence  of  the  vast  extent  of  the  lowlands,  the 
Atlantic  rivers  are  generally  navigable  for  long  distances. 
In  this  respect  South  America  is  more  favored  than  any  other 
continent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  great  elevation  and  the 
abrupt  slopes  of  the  Andes  render  them  an  almost  insuperable 
obstacle  to  commerce  by  land,  while  the  practically  unbroken 
coast  line,  especially  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  not  favorable  to 
commerce  by  sea. 

279.  The  Climate  of  Tropical  South  America.  In  respect  to 
size  South  America  is  but  little  inferior  to  North  America. 
Owing  to  its  size  and  great  differences  in  latitude  and  elevation, 
South  America  is  a  "country  of  all  climates." 

The  equatorial  belt  of  calms  and  heavy  rains  crosses  South 
America.  On  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes  near  the  equator 
it  is  said  to  "rain  thirteen  months  in  the  year."  On  both  sides 
of  the  doldrums,  the  subequatorial  zones  are  well  developed, 
being  marked  by  belts  of  grasslands  wherever  the  surface  is 
level  (llanos,  campos).  The  trade  winds,  however,  encounter- 
ing highlands  as  they  move  inland,  are  rain-bearing  in  place 

C268) 


368 


TROPICAL     SOUTH     AMERICA  269 

of  drying  winds,  as  far  west  as  the  crest  of  the  Andes.  The 
only  extensive  trade-wind  desert  in  South  America  is  thus 
west  of  the  Andes  (5^-30°)  where  the  wind  descends  from  the 
mountains.     (§44  and  §51.) 

Being    broadest    near    the    equator,    four-fifths    of    South 
America  lies  within  the  Tropics. 

'  In  the  Andean  region,  however,  there  are  numerous  moun- 
tain-girt plateaus,  like  the  one  in  Mexico,  which  are  temperate 
or  even  frigid  because  of  elevation.^  They  are  also  very  fertile, 
being  usually  floored  with  waste  from  the  neighboring  moun- 
tains. These  plateaus  were  the  seats  of  the  Inca  and  other 
native  civilizations.  There,  too,  the  Spaniards,  a  mountain- 
loving  people,  largely  fixed  their  abodes;  for  civilization  seems 
to  climb  the  mountain  sides  as  you  go  toward  the  equator. 
For  centuries,  however,  these  plateaus  were,  and  in  large  part 
they  still  are,  inaccessible  except  on  mule-back.     This  fact 

65%  lOf,  25%- 


Jndians  and  half-breeds  Negroes  Whites 


Data  from  Chisholni,  Uandbuok 

Fig.  183.     Population  of  South  America  by  races. 

has  rendered  them  a  "land  of  yesterday,"  where  a  crooked 
stick  still  serves  for  a  plow,  and  commerce  in  the  modern  .sense 
is  impossible. 

280.  The  Inhabitants  of  South  America.  People  as  well  as 
crops  vary  with  the  climate.  Nowhere  is  this  fact  more 
strikingly  shown  than  in  South  America.  Nebraska  differs 
little  more  from  Nicaragua  in  all  that  pertains  to  energy, 
industry,  and  commerce,  than  Chile  differs  from  Colombia,  or 
Argentina  from  tropical  Brazil. 

'The  average  elevations  of  the  chief  Andean  plateaus  are:  Caracas, 
3,000  feet;  Bogota,  8,700;  Quito,  9,500;  Cuzco,  11,500;  Titicaca  or  La 
Paz,  12,500;  Cochabamba,  8,000.  The  mountains  inclosing  these  pla- 
teaus consist  of  two  main  chains  from  the  southern  Tropic  to  the 
motmtain  knot  of  Pasto  in  latitvide  1°  N.;  and  three  chains  thence 
to  Bogotd,,  where  the  eastern  chain  subdivides,  and  sends  off  the 
Venezuelan  coast  range  to  the  eastward,  making  four  in  all. 


270  COMMERCIAL'    GEOGRAPHY 

To  the  influence  of  climate  is  added  the  influence  of  race. 
(Fig.  183.)  Wherever  the  Indians  were  sufficiently  accus- 
tomed to  labor  to  make  valuable  slaves,  as  they  were  on  the 
Andean  plateaus,  the  Spaniards  became  merely  a  ruling  class 
which  rapidly  blended  with  the  subject  race,  as  in  Mexico. 
The  Andean  countries  are,  therefore,  almost  solidly  Indian  in 
population.  Along  the  Caribbean  and  in  tropical  Brazil, 
again,  where  the  Indians  were  too  weak  or  intractable  to  be 
useful  as  slaves,  negroes  were  imported  as  in  the  West  Indies; 
and  the  people  are  now  an  indescribable  mixture  of  red,  v/hite, 
and  black,  with  the  black  tending  to  predominate. 

Throughout  temperate  South  America,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  population  is  almost  exclusively  white.  The  pampas 
Indians,  being  hunters,  v/ere  neither  numerous  nor  useful  as 
slaves;  and  there  was  no  industry  there  in  colonial  days 
calling  for  negro  labor.  Argentina,  Urugua}^  and  southern 
Brazil  thus  have  even  a  smaller  proportion  of  colored 
inhabitants  than  New  England. 

In  point  of  language,  all  South  America  is  Spanish  except 
Brazil  which  is  Portuguese,  and  the  three  Guianas  which  use 
the  languages  of  the  home  countries.  In  addition,  educated 
people  in  all  parts  of  Ainerica  south  of  the  United  States  almost 
universally  understand  and  speak  French,  the  language  of 
the  greatest  Latin  nation. 

281.  Grasslands  of  Tropical  South  America.  The  llanos 
and  campos  are  natural  cattle  ranges.  The  Orinoco  region, 
having  river  transportation,  is  already  a  serious  factor  in  com- 
merce. On  the  Brazilian  Plateau,  on  the  western  or  dry  side 
of  the  Atlantic  mountains,  stock  raising  is  likewise  the  domi- 
nant industry  soutli  of  12°  or  even  10°  S.  latitude,  especially 
in  the  great  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 

The  Andean  plateaus,  which  reach  400  miles  in  width,  and 
in  many  places  rise  above  the  timber  line,  are  adapted  to 
sheep,  llamas,  and  alpacas.  Some  hides  and  wool  from  these 
animals,  and  from  the  wild  vicunas  and  guanacos,  are  sent  to 
the  coast  for  export. 


TROPICAL     SOUTH     AMERICA 


ijt 


282.  Forest  Products  of  Tropical  South  America.  With 
the  exception  of  these  grasslands,  and  the  Pacific  coast 
between  latitude  5°  and  35°  S.,  which  is  arid,  practically  all 
of  tropical  South  America  bears  heavy  forests.  In  many 
places  the  jungles  are  so  dense  that  the  rivers  are  the  only 
possible  roads. 

The  most  valuable  forest 
products  are  rubber,  balata, 
and  ivory  nuts.  Ivory  nuts 
have  a  very  hard,  white 
meat  which  is  often  substi- 
tuted for  animal  ivory. 

There  are  also,  in  addition 
to  the  usual  cabinet  and  dye- 
woods  (§263),  several  other 
valuable  forest  products  in 
this  region.  Piassava,  a 
kind  of  rush,  is  employed 
for  brooms.  The  wax  of  the 
carnauba  palm  serves  for 
candles.  Brazil  nuts,  known 
to  commerce  as  "Para 
chestnuts,"  are  extensively 
exported  to  Europe  and 
North  America.  Tonka 
beans  are  employed  in  per- 
fumes. Brazil  wood  yields 
a  brilliant  red   dye.     Divi-     .„.,.^^^_^_^_ 

divi    pods   are  an  effective    '  ''""""^  °"""'- °' '^™""'"'' 

,  ■  J.  u-       11  Fig    184-      Tapping  a  riihbcr  tree. 

tanning  agent.       l^inally,  it     ^ 

there  are  innumerable  medicinal  substances,  including  sarsa- 

parilla,  several  varieties  of  balsam, ^  cinchona,  and  cocoa. 

Cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark  yields  quinine,  a  drug  invaluable 
for  malaria;  and  the  coca  tree  yields  cocaine,  used  in  surgery. 
Both  of  these  trees  are  native  to  the  Andes,  cinchona  on  the 

'Chiefly  balsam  copaiba  and  tolu. 


27^ 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


western  and  coca  on  the  eastern  slopes,  where  plantations  have 
been  established  to  supplement  the  wild  supply.     (Fig.  218.) 

283.  The  Rubber  Industry  in  South  America.  Rubber, 
which  has  become  indispensable  in  almost  innumerable  manu- 
factures (§107),  is  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  staples  of 
tropical  South  America,  especially  of  the  Amazon  Basin,  where 
it  is  still  chiefly  obtained  from  wild  trees.  (Figs  184  and  185.) 
It  occurs  in  the  sap,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  coagulation. 

The  best  grade,  known  as  Para  from  the  place  of  export, 
comes  from  several  species  of  trees  (Heveas)  growing  where 
the  annual  rainfall  is  100  inches  and  upward  well  distributed 


Coffee  (exp9rts) 


Rubber  (exports) 


Cocoa 
Data  from  Year  Book  of  Agriculture,  1912-13,  and  Statesman's  Year  Book,  1912-14 

Fig.  185.     Staple  tropical  exports  of  South  America.     Totals,  five-year 

averages  {■millions  of  pounds):  coffee  exports  less  re-exports, 

2,2/1;  cocoa  crops,  502;  rubber  exports,  160. 

throughout  the  year,  and  the  annual  temperature  is  about 
80°.  These  flourish  on  lowlands  and  slopes  up  to  2,000  feet 
elevation.  1  Manitoba  rubber,  also  called  Ceara  from  a  state 
in  Brazil,  comes  from  a  tree  related  to  the  cassava  plant. 
This  tree  is  at  home  on  stony  or  sandy  soils  where  the  rainfall 
is  moderate.  A  third  grade  of  rubber,  Mangabeira,  from  a 
tree  accustomed  to  a  distinct  dry  season,  reaches  the  market 
mainly  through  the  port  of  Pernambuco.  Finally,  an  inferior 
rubber,  Caucho,  is  derived  from  still  a  different  tree,  native  to 
Central  America  and  the  western  coast  of  South  America  as 
far  south  as  Peru.  It  is  a  lowland  but  not  a  swamp  tree,  and 
like  the  others  named,  cannot  stand  tcmperattires  below  60°  F. 
^Freeman  and  Chandler,  The  World's  Commercial  Products,  p.  282. 


TROPICAL     SOUTH     AMERICA  273 

Balata,  obtained  from  a  tree  native  to  the  Caribbean  slope, 
is  a  substitute  for  gutta-percha. 

284.  The  Crops  of  Tropical  South  America.  The  staple 
food  crops  on  the  lowlands  are  rice  and  manioc  or  cassava,  a 
root  crop  which  takes  the  place  of  potatoes  in  this  part  of  the 
Tropics.  Both  are  also  exported  to  some  extent ;  the  manioc 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  mandioca  (manioc  flour)  or  tapioca.  A  t 
medium  elevations  the  food  crops  are,  as  in  Mexico,  corn  and 
beans;  while  on  the  cold  Andean  plateaus,  wheat  matures  up 
to  10,000  feet,  barley,  quinua  (a  cereal  peculiar  to  the  Andes), 
and  potatoes  to  13,000  feet.     Some  estates  in  Bolivia  on  the 


Fig.  186.     Picktng  coffee  near  Sao  Paulo. 

mountain  sides  produce  the  crops  of  all  three  zones;  but  in 
general  the  lowlands  can  obtain  wheat  from  abroad  more 
cheaply  than  it  can  be  carried  down  the  mountains  on  mule- 
back. 

The  most  important  export  crop  is  coffee  (Fig.  186),  which 
is  grown  on  the  middle  slopes  (1,000  to  1,500  feet  elevation) 
around  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos,  and  again  at  higher  eleva- 
tions (up  to  6,000  feet)  from  Caracas  to  Bogota.  Next  in  rank 
is  cocoa,  grown  at  lower  elevations  (under  1,500  feet)  in  Ecua- 
dor, in  Brazil  around  Bahia,  and  also  in  the  Caracas  district. 
Brazil  furnishes  the  largest  portion  though  not  the  best  grade 
of  the  VTorld's  coffee.  Ecuador,  where  cocoa  is  indigenous, 
has  the  largest  production  of  cocoa.     (Fig.  187.) 


274 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Under  the  name  of  "valorization"  of  coffee,  Brazil  has  estab- 
lished  a  government  coffee  trust,  the  intent  and  the  effect 
being  to  compel  foreign  nations  (that  is,  chiefly  the  United 
States,  the  principal  market  for  low-grade  coffees),  to  pay  an 
artificial  monopoly  price  for  coffee.  This  emphasizes  the 
desirability  of  developing  the  coffee  industry  in  the  islands 
belonging  to  the  United  States  to  prevent  such  extortion. 


Fig.  1S7.     Gathering  cocoa  pods  in  Ecuador. 

Other  crops  of  considerable  value  are  cotton  and  sugar, 
exported  from  Pernambuco  and  also  from  the  irrigated  coast 
valleys  of  Peru  in  the  same  latitude.  "Peruvian  rough"  cotton 
from  the  Piura  Valley  is  especially  adapted  for  mixing  with 
wool.  Tobacco  is  exported  chiefly  from  the  Bahia  district  in 
Brazil,  the  crop  elsewhere  serving  local  use.     The  bulk  of  the 


TROPICAL  SOUTH  AMERICA  275 

Brazilian  tobacco  crop  is  grown  in  the  great  interior  valley 
of  the  Sao  Francisco.  Large  quantities  of  bananas  and  cocoa- 
nuts  reach  the  United  States  from  Colombia,  and  an  American 
company  has  acquired  extensive  holdings  of  banana  lands 
around  Santa  Marta  Cesar. 

285.  Mineral  Resources  of  Tropical  South  America.  All 
three  mountain  systems  abound  in  metals.  The  silver  mines 
of  Potosi  and  Cerro  de  Pasco  for  centuries  produced  fabulous 
sums;  yet  the  surface  has  hardly  been  scratched,  and  the  old 
dump  piles  still  carry  more  silver  than  many  paying  ores  in 
the  United  States.  Tin  is  largely  mined  in  the  Oruro  dis- 
trict of  Bolivia  (Fig.  219);  copper  at  Cerro  de  Pasco  in  Peru, 
where  silver  is  now  a  by-product;  and  manganese  in  Brazil. 
(Fig.  223.)  Important  gold  fields  have  also  been  opened  in 
Guiana,  where  tradition  placed  El  Dorado,  the  Gilded  Man. 

Diamonds  came  chiefly  from  Brazil  before  the  discovery  of 
the  South  African  deposits,  and  Brazil  is  still  an  important 
source  of  colored  stones,  especially  tourmalines.  Emerald 
deposits  near  Bogota,  which  originally  led  to  the  Spanish 
conquest  of  that  section,  still  supply  most  of  the  world's 
emeralds.     Pearl  beds  also  occur  near  the  Venezuelan  coast. 

Coal  and  iron,  the  foundations  of  modem  industry,  do 
not  fit  into  the  plan  of  life  in  tropical  South  America,  where 
people  are  still  in  large  measure  children  of  nature,  content  to 
exist  on  the  spontaneous  products  of  the  earth.  Important 
coal  fields,  however,  exist  in  southern  Brazil;  smaller  areas  occur 
along  the  Caribbean  and  in  all  the  Andean  states.  Near 
Bogota,  where  coal,  iron,  and  limestone  lie  side  by  side  as  in 
Alabama,  only  a  little  iron  is  smelted. 

Petroleum  wells  are  in  operation  near  Payta,  and  crude  oil 
serves  as  fuel  on  some  of  the  railways  in  Peru.  The  oil  field 
is  said  to  extend  along  the  sea  for  a  hundred  or  more  miles. 
Asphaltum,  formed  by  petroleum  long  exposed  to  the  air,  is 
very  abundant  in  Venezuela. 

Monazite,  used  in  Welsbach  gas  mantles,  is  exported  from 
Brazil,  and  guano  from  arid  islands  adjacent  to  Peru. 


276 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


286.  Manufactures  in  Tropical  South  America.  In  view  of 
the  primitive  mode  of  Hfe,  most  common  articles  are  made  by 
hand,  for  example,  pottery  and  leather  goods.  Panama  hats, 
so  called  because  shipped  through  Panama,  are  plaited  by 
Indians  in  Ecuador  from  the  leaves  of  a  screw  pine.  Some 
cotton  mills,  however,  are  at  work  in  Peru  and  Brazil.  The 
latter  country  has  tried  to  start  other  industries,  such  as 
flour  milling  and  shoe  making,  by  means  of  a  high  protective 
tariff  which  raises  the  prices  obtained  by  manufacturers. 


Fig.  1 88.     Llamas  in  Pern,  waiting  for  their  loads. 

In  each  of  the  mountain  systems  there  is  enormous  water 
power  waiting  to  be  harnessed.  For  example,  the  descent 
near  La  Paz,  the  commercial  center  of  Bolivia,  is  10,000  feet 
in  a  few  miles.  Water  power  is  naturally  most  abundant 
along  the  mighty  eastern  wall  of  the  Andes,  but  this  region 
is  at  present  almost  uninhabited. 

287.  Internal  Transportation  in  Tropical  South  America. 
Only  a  neglected  and  dangerous  mule  path,  where  a  mounted 


TROPICAL    SOUTH     AMERICA  277 

postman  is  said  to  have  been  drowned  in  mud,  connected 
(until  1908)  Quito,  the  capital  of  Ecuador,  with  its  port 
of  Guayaquil.  This  is  a  fair  sample  of  transportation  facilities 
away  from  the  rivers  and  railways.  In  Peru  and  Bolivia,  the 
llama  (Fig.  i88),  donkey,  and  mule  are  the  usual  beasts  of 
burden  from  the  railways  back  into  the  interior. 

The  Pacific  streams,  being  short  and  rapid,  are  useless  for 
navigation.  The  Orinoco  on  the  other  hand  is  navigable  to 
Cabuyaro,  less  than  eighty  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  Bogota; 
and  the  Amazon  is  na^^igable  for  seagoing  vessels  to  Iquitos 
in  Peru,  while  smaller  vessels  reach  a  point  (Pongo  de  Manse- 
riche)  within  450  miles  of  the  Pacific.  Two-thirds  of  South 
America  lies  in  the  valleys  of  the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  La 
Plata,  and  these  valleys  are  separated  by  barely  perceptible 
water  partings.  It  is  in  fact  possible  at  high  water  to  pass  by 
boat  from  the  Orinoco  system  into  the  Amazon. 

In  numerous  places,  short  railways  run  inland  from  the  ports 
to  bring  out  the  crops;  and  in  the  chief  coffee  districts  around 
Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Caracas  these  lines  form  connected 
systems. 

In  Ecuador,  a  railway  now  extends  from  Guayaquil  to  Quito, 
and  in  Peru  two  railways  cross  the  western  Andes  above  the 
clouds.  1  The  Lima-Oroya  line  is  the  highest  standard  gauge 
railway  in  the  world  (14,666  feet);  and  the  Mollendo  line  con- 
nects with  steamers  on  Lake  Titicaca,  a  sheet  of  water  nearly 
tlie  size  of  Lake  Erie,  and  these  again  connect  with  a  railwa}'' 
for  La  Paz.  All  the  north  and  south  lines  on  the  Andean 
plateau  form  links  in  the  great  Pan-American  Railway  between 
New  York  and  Buenos  Aires,  which  is  in  the  way  of  becoming 
an  accomplished  fact .2  Bolivia  has  undertaken  to  unite  the 
several  lines  on  the  plateau,  and  also  to  connect  La  Paz  with 
the  navigable  Beni,  while  Brazil  has  built  a  line  around  the 

'Another  is  projected  to  run  from  Payta,  Peru,  over  the  lowest  pass 
(7,1  70  feet)  in  the  central  Andes,  to  Pongo  de  Manseriche  (about  450 
miles),  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Amazon. 

•Pepper,  Report  on  the  Pan-American  Railway,  shows  that  in  1903 
only  4,700  miles  were  lacking,  and  that  many  links  were  building. 

1:'. 


278 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


falls  of  the  Madeira,  in  order  to  open  another  outlet  for  the 
commerce  of  Bolivia  —  the  landlocked  Tibet  of  South 
America. 

288.     The  Principal  Ports  of  Tropical  South  America.     The 

Caribbean  coast  of  South  America  is  somewhat  broken  by 
spurs  of  the  Andes  projecting  into  the  sea.  The  leading  ports 
on  the  Caribbean  are  Georgetown  in  the  Guianas;  La  Guaira, 
which  is  the  port  of  Caracas,  on  an  artificial  harbor; 
Puerto  Cabello,  the  port  of  Valencia,  on  a  fine  natural 
harbor  ;i  and  finally,  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  the  rival 
outlets  of  the  Magdalena  River,  which  forms  the  great  highway 


j^^^^mH^mBH^'^  •■«f«^'"'"  ''^'"  \ 

--'ii^^-'^S^i^^^^~^.  ■'"  •  -  • 

PL... 

Conrteay  of  International  Bureau  of  Republics 

Fig.  189.     Vieiv  of  the  harbor  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, showiii^  its 
landlocked  character. 

into  the  interior^  of  Colombia.  Both  rely  on  railways  to  get 
goods  to  and  from  the  river,  as  the  delta  is  not  navigable, 
but  Cartagena  has  the  only  safe  harbor.^ 

'Others  are  Quanta,  the  port  of  Barcelona;  Tucacas,  the  port  of 
Barquisimeto;  Maracaibo,  which  is,  however,  cut  off  from  the  sea  by 
a  shallow  bar ;  Santa  Marta,  the  port  of  a  banana  district ;  and  Ciudad 
Bolivar,  on  the  Orinoco. 

*As  far  as  La  Dorada,  some  600  miles  up;  and  again  on  the  upper 
river  above  Honda.  The  rapids  above  La  Dorada  are  passed  by  rail; 
and  another  line  connects  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  upper  river 
with  Bogota. 

^Cartagena  is  on  the  coast ;  Barranquilla  is  on  the  river.  Barranquilla 
ships  goods  by  rail  to  Sabanilla  (Port  Colombia),  an  exposed  road- 
stead where  they  are  transferred  to  vessels. 


TROPICAL    SOUTH    AMERICA  279 

On  the  Atlantic  coast  there  are  deep  bays  at  Bahia,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Brazil,  and  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  capital 
and  metropolis  of  Brazil  and  the  second  city  in  South  America. 
(Fig.  189.)  Bahia  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  which  con- 
nects with  the  navigable  Sao  Francisco  River  above  the  falls. 
Pernambuco  is  fairly  sheltered  by  a  coral  reef,  whence  is 
derived  its  other  name  Recife.  Santos,  a  river  port,  is  the 
principal  shipping  point  for  coffee,  by  virtue  of  its  position  near 
the  coffee  district;  and  it  may  in  time  supplant  Rio  as  the 
commercial  center  of  Brazil.  These  four  are  the  chief 
Brazilian  seaports.  On  the  Amazon  there  are  two  important 
rubber  pprts.  Para  (Belem)  and  Manaos,  the  latter  a  thousand 
miles  inland  like  Montreal.     Ceara  also  ships  some  rubber. 

On  the  Pacific  the  only  considerable  inlet  is  at  Guayaquil, 
where  a  bay  breaks  through  the  coast  range.  Another  small 
bay  at  Buenaventura  became  the  natural  outlet  of  the  densely- 
peopled  Cauca  Valley,  when  the  railroad  was  completed  from 
Buenaventura  to  the  Cauca  River  The  other  harbors  on  the 
Pacific  are  merely  roadsteads  very  imperfectly  sheltered  by 
small  islands  or  projecting  points  of  land.  Such  is  Callao,  the 
port  of  Lima  and  the  chief  port  of  Peru. 

Islands  of  any  considerable  size  are  conspicuous  by  their 
absence  on  the  Pacific  coast,  the  only  group  being  the  Gala- 
pagos (3,170  square  miles). ^  These  are  of  volcanic  origin  and 
barren  near  the  sea  but  inclose  several  deep,  well-sheltered 
anchorages,  and  are  said  by  naval  authorities  to  offer  the 
only  feasible  site  for  a  coaling  and  naval  station  on  routes  from 
south  of  the  equator  to  the  Panama  Canal. 

'Here  Captain  Porter  rnade  his  headquarters  for  a  time  during  his 
famous  cruise  in  the  "Essex"  (18 13).  A  colony  was  later  established 
(1832)  by  an  American,  named  Vilomil,  from  Louisiana.  During  the 
Harrison  administration,  Mr.  Blaine  tried  to  secure  a  coaling  station 
on  the  Galapagos  Islands.  Though  claimed  by  Ecuador,  these  islands 
are  practically  unoccupied. 


XX— TEMPERATE  SOUTH  AMERICA 

289.  Physical    Features   of   Temperate    South    America. 

Temperate  South  America  embraces  most  of  the  four  southern 
countries.  The  three  southern  states  of  Brazil  also  have 
more  in  common  with  Argentina  than  with  tropical  Brazil, 
The  temperate  region  east  of  the  Andes  is  a  vast  plain, 
except  in  south.ern  Brazil,  which  is  an  elevated  plateau 
traversed  by  low  mountains.  Chile,  comprising  the  southern 
Pacific  slope,  is  equal  in  area  to  all  the  Atlantic  states  north  of 
the  Carolinas.  It  consists,  like  California,  chiefly  of  a  great 
valley;  but  the  Chilean  Coast  Range,  imlike  the  Calif ornian, 
is  pierced  by  many  rivers  which  open  pathways  for  railroads 
from  the  interior  to  the  sea.     (Fig.  181.) 

290.  Climate  of  Temperate  South  America.  Being  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  the  climate  is  hot  toward  the  north, 
cold  toward  the  south,  and  midwinter  in  Argentina  is  mid- 
summer in  the  United  vStates.  Chile  is  thus  a  reversed  cop}'- 
of  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  from  Lower  California 
to  Alaska,  while  Argentina  corresponds  to  the  region  from 
central  Mexico  to  Hudson  Bay.  The  tapering  form  of  the 
continent  with  a  cold  ocean  current  on  the  west  and  a  warm 
current  on  the  east,  narrows  the  belt  of  temperate  climate  to 
practically  ten  degrees  of  latitude  (30*^  to  40") .  For  this  reason 
Ruenos  Aires,  in  the  latitude  of  Memphis,  has  substantially  the 
climate  of  New  Orleans,  while  Valdivia,  not  far  from  the  lati- 
tutle  of  vSan  Francisco,  has  the  climate  of  Sitka. 

Abundant  rainfall  (forty  inches  or  more)  is  brought  by  the 
prevailing  trade  wind  in  northeastern  Argentina,  and  also  by 
the  prevailing  westerlies  in  Chile  soiitli  of  Concepcion;  but 
most  of  Argentina  south  of  35"  (that  is,  in  the  zone  of  pre- 
vailing westerlies),  since  it  lies  in  the  lea  of  the  Andes,  is  too 
dry  for  tillage,  and  in  parts  too  dry  even  for  pasturage. 
(Fig.  15.)     South  of  40'^  liowcver,  wlierc   the  mountains  are 


TEMPERATE    SOUTH    AMERICA  28 1 

lower  and  the  west  winds  stronger,  there  are  some  grasslands 
and  even  patches  of  timber  in  the  lake  district  along  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Andes. 

291.  Forests  of  Temperate  South  America.  As  a  result 
of  this  distribution  of  rainfall,  there  are  two  important  forest 
areas  in  temperate  South  America:  Paraguay  and  northern 
Argentina,  where  the  forest  is  subtropical  in  character;  and 
southern  Chile,  south  of  Concepcion,  which  is  pine-clad.  The 
most  valuable  subtropical  wood  is  quebracho,  whose  bark  is 
a  powerful  tanning  agent,  while  the  wood  itself  rivals  teak 
in  durability.  Chile  also  exports  considerable  gum  {goma 
brea)  used  in  mucilage.  In  spite  of  these  forests,  pine  lumber 
is  largely  shipped  from  North  America  to  Chile. 

In  the  colder  districts,  both  on  the  Andean  plateaus  and 
toward  the  south  of  Chile,  is  found  the  chinchilla,  a  small 
animal  yielding  a  valuable  fur. 

292.  Stock-raising  in  Temperate  South  America.  South 
of  about  30°  S.',  the  rainfall  on  the  plains  east  of  the  Andes 
Mountains  is  insufficient  to  support  forests.  These  plains 
in  Uruguay  and  Argentina  are  natural  grasslands,  or  pampas. 
The  chief  industry  is  consequently  the  raising  of  stock,  espe- 
cially cattle.  In  recent  years  the  dairy  industry  has  made 
considerable  progress  in  Argentina,  where  improved  breeds  of 
cattle  have  been  introduced.  Argentina  also  ranks  high  in 
the  number  of  sheep,  though  they  are  rather  of  the  mutton 
than  the  wool  t3^pe.  (Fig.  39.)  Both  in  Uruguay  and  Argen- 
tina the  Spanish  element,  true  to  its  traditions,  prefers  pas- 
toral pursuits,  expecially  as  refrigerator  ships  have  made  the 
stock  industry  very  profitable.  Considerable  American  capital 
is  also  invested  in  the  grazing  and  meat-packing  industries. 

'  In  central  Chile  the  foothills  and  the  higher  mountain  val- 
leys serve  as  pastures.  South  of  Puerto  IMontt,  in  the  belt 
of  stormy  westerlies,  where  the  weather  is  so  cloudy  that  even 
barley  wiE  not  ripen,  sheep  are  the  main  resource,  supple- 
mented by  lumber,  fish,  and  chinchilla  fur.  For  the  same 
reason,  the  Falkland  Islands  are  mostly  sheep  runs. 


aSa  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

293.  Crops  of  Temperate  South  America.  Mat^  or  Para- 
guay tea  is  the  most  important  product  of  a  large  district 
where  Paraguay,  Argentina,  and  Brazil  meet.  It  is  the  leaf 
of  an  indigenous  tree,  which  grows  wild,  and  is  extensively 
used  throughout  South  America  in  place  of  coffee  or  tea. 
Other  products  are  oranges  and  tobacco  in  Paraguay,  and 
sugar  cane  around  Tucuman  in  northern  Argentina. 

West  of  about  64°  in  Argentina,  the  rainfall  is  less  than 
twenty  inches,  as  in  the  Great  Plains  region  of  the  United 
States.  The  same  condition  also  exists  in  Chile  north  of  about 
35°,  just  as  in  southern  California.  Agriculture  in  these  dis- 
tricts is  consequently  limited  in  the  main  to  irrigated  areas. 
On  the  Andean  foothills,  both  in  Chile  and  Argentina,  between 
30°  and  35°,  irrigated  vineyards  and  orchards  have  been 
planted,  largely  by  French  and  Italians.  During  the  season 
special  fast  fruit  trains  run  from  Mendoza  to  Buenos  Aires. 

43% 10% 15i  1 1%  15% 


Argentina 
116  million  bushels 

United 
States 

43 

Roumania 
41 

Russia 
30 

All  others 
40 

Data  from  Year  Book  of  Agriculture,  1912-13 

Fig.  190.     Exports  of  corn  including  corn  meal.     Total, 
five-year  average:  270  million  bushels. 

Outside  these  arid  belts,  field  crops  have  made  considerable 
progress,  both  in  Chile  and  Argentina,  though  little  in  Uru- 
guay, notwithstanding  it  is  the  best  watered.  The  most 
important  are  wheat,  com  (Fig.  43),  and  alfalfa,  the  latter 
a  forage  crop  which  is  fed  to  stock.  Potatoes  and  barley  are 
also  grown  in  Chile,  and  flaxseed  in  Argentina.  (Fig.  97.) 
The  principal  grain-growing  district  lies  east  of  C6rdoba  in 
Argentina,  between  30°  and  35°  of  latitude.  The  export  of 
wheat  and  com  (Fig.  190)  from  this  region  is  a  large  item  in 
international  commerce,  though  only  an  insignificant  part  of 
the  arable  land  has  passed  under  the  plow.  In  the  future,  when 
the  food  products  of  the  United  States  are  mostly  consumed 
at  home,  Canada,  Argentina,  and  Siberia  will  be  the  granaries 
of  the  world. 


TEMPERATE    SOUTH    AMERICA  283 

Agriculture  is  still,  however,  for  the  most  part  carried  on 
by  recent  European  immigrants;  in  Uruguay,  where  there 
are  few  immigrants,  there  is  little  agriculture.  The  great- 
est obstacle  to  its  rapid  development  is  the  aristocratic 
organization  of  society.  Throughout  Latin  America  a  few 
wealthy  families  own  all  the  good  land  and  hold  the  mass 
of  the  people  in  utter  subjection,  ruling  their  estates  like 
feudal  lords. 

294.  Mineral  Products  of  Temperate  South  America. 
Several  gold  and  copper  mines  are  in  operation  around 
Rioja;  the  south  Brazilian  coal  field  extends  into  Uruguay; 
and  another  coal  field,  associated  with  petroleum,  lies  along 
the  eastern  flank  of  the  Andes  near  Mendoza.  As  yet,  however, 
owing  to  the  distance  of  these  deposits  from  the  centers  of 
population,  and  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities,  the 
mineral  output  of  Uruguay  and  Argentina  is  insignificant. 

Chile,  on  the  other  hand,  abounds  in  minerals,  which  furnish 
her  chief  exports.  The  principal  copper-producing  district  in 
South  America  (Fig.  138)  lies  along  the  base  of  the  Andes, 
especially  between  Copiapo  and  Santiago,  the  ore  in  places 
carrying  also  gold  and  silver.  Coal  fields  line  the  coast  for  a 
hundred  miles  around  Coronel,  the  chief  coal  port.  This  coal 
is  the  best  hitherto  mined  in  South  America,  and  lies  near 
deposits  of  iron  ore.  It  is  still  true,  however,  that  Chile  burns 
more  coal  than  she  mines.  Finally,  by  the  war  with  Bolivia 
and  Peru,  Chile  acquired  (1884)  the  Atacama  Desert,  which 
is  amazingly  rich  in  nitrate  salts. 

The  success  of  Chile  in  this  war  was  no  doubt  due  to  the 
character  of  her  people,  recruited  from  the  northwestern 
provinces  of  Spain  and  inheriting  their  "energetic  and  warlike 
temperament."  Peru  on  the  other  hand  was  settled  mainly 
by  a  softer  stock  from  Andalusia,  and  it  lies  within  the 
Tropics.  The  nitrate  trade  made  Chile  rich  and  powerful. 
But  her  statesmen,  realizing  that  the  nitrate  will  soon  be  ex- 
hausted, are  promoting  other  industries  in  order  to  put  Chile 
on  a  sounder  basis. 


284  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

295.  The  Nitrate  Industry.  Of  the  three  elements  often 
lacking  in  soils  (§117),  nitrogen  is,  next  to  phosphorus,  the 
element  most  easily  exhausted  and  most  difficult  to  restore. 
This  fact  explains  the  great  importance  to  the  world  of  the 
Chilean  nitrate  of  soda  deposits.  They  probably  represent 
fossil  guano  deposits  which  have  been  preserved  through  the 
ages  by  the  dryness  of  the  climate. 

The  industry  is  carried  on  by  foreign,  largely  English, 
capital  and  native  labor,  and  is  controlled  by  a  "trust" 
which  effectively  eliminates  competition  and  maintains  prices 
at  the  point  of  maximum  net  profit  to  the  producers.  An 
export  tax  on  nitrates  is  the  chief  source  of  revenue  for  the 
Chilean  government. 

The  bulk  of  the  nitrate  exports  goes  to  Europe,  where  the 
soil  is  farmed  intensively.  This  trade,  giving  cheap  return 
freight  on  goods  from  Europe,  is  one  cause  of  European 
predominance   in   South   American  markets. 

296.  Manufactures  of  Temperate  South  America.  Tem- 
perate South  America,  like  the  tropical  section,  is  still  in  the 
"extractive"  stage  of  industry;  that  is,  engaged  in  furnishing 
food  and  such  raw  materials  as  wool,  hides,  and  minerals. 
Manufactures  have,  however,  made  some  progress,  employing 
chiefl}'  native  raw  materials.  Examples  are:  the  preparation 
of  beef  extract  at  Fray  Bentos  in  Uruguay,  and  of  tasajo  or 
jerked  beef;  likewise  the  grinding  of  wheat,  the  refining  of 
sugar,  the  tanning  of  leather,  and  the  weaving  of  coarse 
woolens  in  various  cities. 

Chile,  moreover,  having  coal  near  the  sea,  and  many  swift 
rivers  descending  from  the  Andes,  enjoys  marked  advantages 
for  manufacturing.  She  lias,  already,  modern  steel  works  at 
Corral  near  Valdivia,  where  iron  ore  occurs,  and  copper 
smelters  at  Coroncl.  In  addition,  there  are  chemical  works 
producing  iodine  and  borate  of  lime,  in  connection  with  the 
nitrate  industry. 

297.  Internal  Transportation  in  Temperate  South  America. 
The  La  Plata  svstem  offers  several  thousand  miles  of  river 


TEMPERATE  SOUTH   AMERICA  285 

navigation.  The  Uruguay  River  is,  indeed,  broken  no  great 
distance  inland  at  Salto  (the  Falls);  but  the  Paraguay  is 
navigable  to  Cuyaba  in  Brazil,  forming  the  only  outlet  of  a 
vast  region.  It  is  especially  important  for  the  shipment  of 
wheat  from  Argentina. 

The  level  surface  of  the  pampas  favors  railroad  construction. 
In  Argentina,  especially,  the  railroad  system  is  already  exten- 
sive and  rapidly  growing.  One  trunk  line  traversing  a  tunnel 
under  the  Uspallata-  Pass\  connects  with  the  Chilean  rail- 
roads, thus  saving  ten  days  over  the  route  by  sea  between 
Buenos  Aires  and  Valparaiso,  though  the  grades  are  heavy 
and  a  difference  in  gauge  compels  transhipment.  Another 
road  extends  southwest  to  the  foothills  of  the  Andes,  toward 
the  lake  district  of  Argentina,  where  a  low  pass^  opposite 
Valdivia  offers  another  and  easier  route  to  the  Pacific.  A  third 
line,  undertaken  according  to  a  treaty  with  Bolivia,  climbs 
the  Bolivian  Plateau  from  Jujuy,  Argentina,  and  will  even- 
tually connect  with  the  Antofagasta  line  at  Uyuni,  thus 
forming   a  link   in   the   Pan-x^merican   Railway.^ 

Smaller  railway  systems  exist  in  Uruguay  and  Paraguay, 
now  connected  with  the  Argentine  system. 

The  railways  of  Chile  are  for  the  most  part  short  lines  run- 
ning down  the  river  valleys  from  the  Andes  Mountains  to  the 
sea;  but  a  longitudinal  railway  has  recently  been  completed 
from  Puerto  Montt,  north  along  the  coast  through  Iquique  and 
to  Pisagua.  The  line  from  Antofagasta  crosses  the  western 
divide  of  the  Andes  to  the  Boli^'ian  Plateau;  at  the  same  time 
a  more  direct  Hne  has  been  opened  (19 12)  from  Arica  to 
La  Paz.  This  is  intended  to  maintain  control  of  Bolivian  com- 
merce in  spite  of  the  Argentine  line ;  and  its  commercial  value 
will  be  increased  by  the  Panama   Canal.     Whatever  nation 

1  Uspallata  Pass,  12,464  feet  elevation.  The  line  is  893  miles 
long  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Valparaiso,  reaching  an  elevation  of 
10,365    feet. 

2 The  Bariloche,  only  2,760  feet  elevation. 

3  Reaching  the  plateau  through  Tres  Cruces  Pass,  elevation  12,215 
feet.     Part  of  the  way  cogged  rails  have  to  be  used. 


286  COMMERCIAL    CkOGRAPHV 

dominates  the  Bolivian  Plateau  will  have  made  a  long  stride 
toward  a  controlling  position  in  South  America. 

298.  The  United  States  of  South  America.    The  map  of 

South  America  is  not  fixed  for  all  time;  for  with  every  day 
that  passes  the  present  political  condition,  based  on  the  diffi- 
culties of  travel  and  transportation  before  the  days  of  steam, 
becomes  more  of  a  burden  to  commerce.  The  marshy  and 
torrid  valley  of  the  Amazon,  and  the  towering  masses  of  the 
Andes,  do  indeed  form  natural  boundaries;  but  the  political 
divisions  existing  in  temperate  South  America,  east  of  the 
Andes,  are  wholly  unnatural.  Railways  are  the  advance 
agents  of  conquest,  commercial  and,  in  the  end,  political. 
The  recent  extension  of  the  Argentine  railways  with  the  systems 
in  the  adjacent  countries  must,  therefore,  tend  to  draw  at  least 
Paraguay  and  Uruguay  into  the  Argentine  sphere  of  influence. 
Neither  of  these  countries  has,  in  fact,  any  present  reason  for 
separate  existence,  and  both  would  profit  commercially  by 
inclusion  in  Argentina,  the  true  United  States  of  South  America. 

299.  The  Chief  Centers  of  Commerce  in  Temperate  South 
America.  The  Atlantic  coast  is  sandy  south  of  Santos  and 
lacks  first-class  natural  harbors. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul  and  Porto  Alegre,  the  ports  of  southern 
Brazil  (both  situated  on  a  great  lagoon)  are  cut  off  from  the 
sea  by  a  bar  carrying  only  a  few  feet  of  water.  The  La  Plata 
estuary  is  wide,  shallow,  and  entirely  unprotected  by  nature; 
here,  however,  centers  most  of  the  foreign  commerce.  Monte- 
video is  the  natural  outlet  of  the  country  between  the  Uruguay 
River  and  the  sea,  being  separated  by  a  wide  estuary  from 
Argentina.  Buenos  Aires  (Fig.  191),  by  far  the  largest  city 
in  South  America,  and  exceeded  in  size  by  only  three  in  the 
United  States,  is  the  chief  port  of  Argentina.  It  has  a  fine 
artificial  harbor,  and  the  completion  of  additional  railway 
lines  to  Chile  and  Bolivia  will  render  it  the  commercial 
center  of  nearly  all  temperate  South  America.  An  "out- 
port"  has  also  been  built  at  La  Plata  for  the  larger  vessels. 
The  principal   river   ports   are   Rosario   in    the    wheat    belt, 


TEMPERATE  SOUTH  AMERICA 


287 


accessible  to  ocean  vessels  of  moderate  draft,  and  Asuncion 
in  Paraguay.  Bahia  Blanca,  on  the  best  natural  harbor  in 
Argentina,  also  has  a  rapidly-growing  trade  with  Europe. 

Most  of  the  commerce  of  Chile  (Fig.  192)  passes  through 
three  ports:  Iquique,  the  principal  nitrate  port;  Antofagasta, 
one  of  the  Chilean  ports  of  Bolivia;  and  Valparaiso  (Paradise 
Valley),  the  port  of  the  capital,  Santiago.  All  are  exposed  road- 
steads, often  storm-swept.^  The  fiord-like  southern  coast  of 
Chile  has  many  harbors  but,  owing  to  the  broken  surface  and 


Fig.  191.     Modern  wheat  elevator  in  Buenos  Aires. 

unfavorable  climate,  the  land  is  relatively  unproductive. 
Punta  Arenas,  in  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  is  however  an  impor- 
tant coaling  station. 

Great  Britain,  with  her  usual  foresight  or  good  luck, 
secured  in  the  Falkland  Islands  a  site  for  another  coaling 
station  adjacent  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 

300.     Commercial    Relations    of    South    America.     South 

America  exports  chiefly  coffee,  rubber,  wool,  hides,  metals, 

and  other   raw    materials,  besides  foodstuffs;    and  imports 

'In  1903,  for  example,  the  fine  steamer  "Arequipa"  was  lost  in  Val- 
paraiso Harbor  with  nearly  a  hundred  on  board, 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


mostly  manufactured  goods,  especially  textiles  and  steel 
wares,  such  as  are  made  in  the  United  States,  also  foodstuffs 
in  the  tropical, section. 


Exports  by  articles 


Imports  by  countries.. 


Exports  by  articles.. 


Imports  by  countries.. 


Exports  by  articles. 


Imports  by  countries. 


56' 


s%2%  T4.% 


Coffee 
181  million  dollars 


Rubber 

83 


All 
others 


26% 


17%  14%         9%     8%   5%  5%     16% 


From 
Great  Britain 

08  million  dollars 

Germany 
43 

United 

States 
;i7 

go. 

Ir. 

£ 

I, 

All  others. 
43 

Data  from  Cdnsiilar  Reports,  Ann.  Xo.  '21 

a.     Commerce  of  Brazil. 

41%  22%  & 


Animals  and  animal 

products 

161  million  dollars 


Wheat 
00 


All  others 
113 


31% 


15% 10%      8%         19% 


From 
Great  Britain 

100  million  dollars 

Germany 

Liiited 

States 

r>l 

9 

s  - 

a  K 

1" 

All  otlier> 

Data  from  S.  V.  B  ,  1912-14.  Pan.  Amor.  Union,  19n-14 

b.     Commerce  of  Argentina. 
85% 


Mineral  products 
100  million  dollars 


31% 


25% 


13%       6%  5%  5%3":  12% 


From 
Great  Britain 
36  million  dollars 

Germany 
iO 

fnitcd    ^ 
states     Z'- 
15        £ 

u 

1. 

r. 

All 

others 
11 

Data  from  Pan.  Aincr.  Union,  19KJ,  S.  V.  B.,  1914 

c.     Commerce  of  Chile. 

Fit..   192.     Commerce  of  Brazil,   Argentina,    and   Chile.      Totals,  five-year 
averages:  Brazil,  exports  324.  (75%  to  U.  S.);  imports  261,  largely  coal, 
lumh;y,  flour,  mantfactures.     Argentina,  exports  352,  largely  to 
Europe;  imports  307,  mostly  textiles,  railivay  plant  and  agri- 
cultural impleme.nis.    Chile,  exports  128,  largely  nitrates; 
imports  114,  mostly  textiles,  steel,  iron. 

The  United  States  had  failed  to  make  headway  against  Eng- 
land or  Gcrmanv  in  South  America  before  the  war.     This  is 


TEMPERATE   SOUTH    AMERICA 


289 


shown  by  the  fact  that  the  share  of  the  United  States  in  South 
American  trade,  except  on  the  Caribbean,  was  not  much  over  a 


"' JH^miHHIIHIHHHH^lH 

i 

3Hi^^^HHII^^^^H^^^H 

Fig.  193. 


Steel  pier  at  Balboa,  the  Pan  fir  terminus 
of  the  Panama  Canal. 


tenth  of  the  total.  (Fi^.  192.)  Moreover,  the  trade  of  the 
United  States  in  South  America  developed  relatively  little  in 
the  thirty  years  before  the  World  War,  and  during  that  time 
the  United  States  bought  in  South  America  nearly  two  billion 
dollars'  worth  of  goods  more  than  it  sold  there.  In  fact,  the 
United  States  sold  in  191 2  more  than  twice  as  much  to  Canada 
as  to  all  of  South  America.     (Tables  4  and  6.) 

One  reason  is  geographic.  South  America  should  right- 
fully be  called  East  America,  from  the  fact  that  it  lies  entirely 
cast  of  Florida.  A  sailing  vessel  from  Hamburg,  coming  with 
the  northeast  trade  wind,  has  an  advantage  of  some  ten  days 
o\"er  a  ship  from  New  York.  Another  reason  is  that  senti- 
ment in  South  America  favors  Europe,  owing  to  the  many 
European  firms  and  the  millions  of  European  immigrants 
settled  there.  Again,  American  business  methods  were  at 
fault.  Catalogues  in  English  were  sent  in  place  of  agents,  and 
to  places  where   English   was  unknown;   goods   were  put  in 


290  •  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

large  boxes  for  districts  where  pack  mules  were  the  only  means 
of  transportation;  no  credit  was  given,  because  there  was  in 
most  places  no  American  bank  or  agency  to  report  who  was 
worthy  of  credit;  and  American  consuls  sometimes  lamented 
the  loss  of  promising  markets  by  downright  fraud  on  the  part 
of  the  sellers.  Finally,  American  manufacturers  had  been  so 
busy  making  goods  for  the  home  market,  where  they  enjoyed 
a  practical  monopoly  through  the  protective  tariff,  that  they 
felt  little  inclination  to  enter  foreign  markets,  where  they  would 
have  to  sell  their  goods  at  competitive  prices. 

In  striking  contrast  to  such  methods  has  been  the  procedure 
of  German  exporters.  They  organized  the  German  Trans- 
oceanic (Deutsche  Ueherseeische)  Bank  of  Berlin,  with  branches 
throughout  Central  and  South  America;  and  they  flooded  the 
country  with  German  agents.  These  were  invariably  men  of 
good  commercial  education,  speaking  fluently  the  language  of 
the  country  and  thoroughly  posted  as  to  the  social  customs 
and  exacting  etiquette  of  the  Latin-Americans.  They  did 
business  on  a  marvelously  small  margin,  giving  long  credits 
and  pushing  German  goods  always  and  everywhere. 

On  account  of  location,  Brazil  and  all  the  Atlantic  countries 
will  probably  remain  commercial  dependencies  of  Europe. 
On  the  Pacific  coast,  however,  the  Panama  Canal  has  canceled 
the  geographic  advantage  previously  held  by  Europe,  since 
it  brings  American  ports  much  closer  than  any  European  port. 
(Fig.  193.)  Even  the  acquisition  of  the  Panama  Railroad  by 
the  United  States  sufficed  to  break  up  a  combination  which 
kept  rates  across  the  isthmus  so  high  that  American  goods 
could  reach  Peru  more  cheaply  by  way  of  Germany  and  Cape 
Horn  than  by  way  of  Panama. 

Finally,  the  Pan-American  Railway,  following  the  ancient 
highway  of  the  Incas  through  the  densely-peopled  Andean 
plateaus,  will  in  a  measure  tend,  when  completed,  to  draw  the 
whole  of  western  and  of  temperate  South  America  within  the 
commercial  domain  of  the  United  States. 


i*<o    8  5 


290 


Fig.  195. 


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Fig.   196.     The  Philippine  Islands. 


XXI— OCEANIA  AND  AUSTRALASIA 

301.  The  Ocean  World.  The  greatest  of  all  oceans  did  not 
prove  an  effective  barrier  to  the  migrations  of  men.  Long 
before  the  first  European  had  crossed  that  wilderness  of  waters 
(Magellan,  1521),  the  natives  of  the  Pacific  isles  sailed  the  seas 
with  no  more  fear  than  the  Indians  roamed  the  western  plains. 

The  existing  races  of  Oceania,  except  the  whites,  came 
from  the  west.  In  the  eastern  islands  are  now  found  the 
Christianized  Polynesians;  from  Fiji  to  Flores,  the  cannibal 
Melanesians  (blacks) ;  from  Flores  north  and  west,  the  Moham- 
medan Malays.  Many  people,  however,  believe  that  the 
mysterious  monuments  scattered  over  the  Pacific,  such  as  the 
huge  images  of  stone  on  Easter  Island,  the  remains  of  a  temple 
on  Ponape  in  the  Carolines,  and  the  massive  stone  pillars  on 
Tinian  north  of  Guam,  represent  a  lost  race  or  at  least  a  lost 
civilization,  destroyed  by  encroachments  of  the  sea. 

In  any  event,  the  land  in  the  Pacific  has  beyond  question 
been  slowly  sinking  for  ages.  Borings  on  the  Ellice  group 
have  gone  down  over  1,000  feet  without  finding  the  bottom 
of  the  coral  rock;  yet  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  the  coral 
polyp  can  live  and  work  only  near  the  surface.  Moreover, 
the  large  islands,  such  as  New  Zealand  and  New  Guinea,  are 
shown  by  their  geological  structure  to  be  fragments  severed 
from  the  adjacent  continents.  It  is  further  evident,  from  the 
plants  and  animals  inhabiting  the  islands,  that  the  first  break 
between  Asia  and  Australia  occurred  at  the  deep  strait  which 
now  separates  Bali  and  Lombok. 

The  innumerable  small  islands  of  Oceania  are  of  two  dis- 
tinct types:  "low"  and  "high,"  the  one  of  coral  and  the  other 
of  volcanic  formation.  They  lie  for  the  most  part  in  a  few 
chains  roughly  parallel  to  the  shores  of  the  continents,  each 
chain  being  the  tip  of  a  gigantic  wrinkle  in  the  earth's  crust. 

(apx) 


2g2  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

302.  The  Partition  of  Oceania.  Excluding  the  islands  from 
New  Guinea  west,  which  are  mostly  Dutch  and  properly  go 
with  Asia,  Oceania  is  now  divided  among  three  nations 
besides  the  United  States.  Only  the  New  Hebrides  remain 
under  joint  French-English  control.    (Fig.  195.) 

After  annexing  Australia  (1788)  and  New  Zealand  (1840), 
England  adopted  the  Cobden  theory  that  Free  Trade  would 
soon  render  colonies  useless.  This  dream  enabled  France  and 
Germany  practically  to  take  their  pick  of  the  remaining  islands, 
for  the  United  States,  as  Captain  Mahan  says,  "had  not  yet 
begun  to  sit  up  and  take  notice." 

The  French  dominions  spread  from  three  centers:  Tahiti 
(1838),  Uea,  or  Wallis  (1844),  New  Caledonia  (1853).  Several 
islands  were  acquired  with  express  reference  to  the  future 
Panama  Canal.  ^  Tahiti,  lying  on  the  direct'  route  between 
Auckland  and  Panama,  is  a  French  coaling  station  and  port  of 
call  corresponding  to  Hawaii  in  the  north  Pacific. 

Germany  annexed  the  Marshall  group  and  part  of  New 
Guinea  (1885).  By  the  purchase  from  Spain  of  the  Caroline 
and  Marianne  islands  (1899).  and  the  partition  of  Samoa  (1900), 
she  acquired  a  solid  block  of  possessions  with  excellent  harbors 
(§228)  and  commanding  all  routes  across  the  western  Pacific. 
Germany  held  these  islands  until  the  \\^orld  War.  Then  under 
the  Peace  Treaty  the  Caroline,  Marianne,  and  Marshall  Islands 
were  made  mandatory  to  Japan,  Samoa  to  New  Zealand,  and 
New  Guinea  to  Australia.  \p..., . 

303.  The  Commerce  of  Oceania.  The  principal  commer- 
cial products  of  the  "low"  or  coral  islands  arc  copra,  and  vari- 
ous substances  from  the  sea,  especially  pearls  and  pearl  shells, 
tortoise  shells,  shark  fins,  and  trepang  (beche-dc-mcr) ,  a  hideous 
sea  slug.     The  last  two  are  much  prized  b}^  the  Chinese. 

These  low  islands,  being  in  many  cases  the  resort  of  myriads 
of  sea  birds,  have  yielded  much  guano,  a  valuable  nitrogenous; 
fertilizer.     Some    of    them    alsc    contain   immense    phosphate 

1  Especially  the  Marquesas  group  where  Captain  Porter  raised  the 
American  flag  (1813),  and  Clipperton  Island  near  the  Mexican  coast. 


OCEANIA     AND     AUSTRALASIA  293 

deposits,  originally  derived  from  guano,  and  large  shipments  of 
phosphates  from  these  islands  have  recently  begun. 

The  volcanic  islands,  being  lofty,  are  well  watered  even  in 
the  trade-wind  belt.  In  addition  to  cocoanuts,  sugar  cane 
and  bananas  are  grown  in  Fiji,  cocoa  (cacao)  in  Samoa, 
vanilla  and  fruits  in  Tahiti.  These  islands  are  all  capable 
of  commercial  development.  They  trade  mainly  with 
Sydney,  Auckland,  and  San  Francisco. 

The  continental  islands  have  a  still  wider  range  of  interests. 
New  Caledonia,  lying  just  within  the  Tropics  like  Hawaii,  is 
relatively  cool  and  dry.  Its  annual  rainfall,  in  fact,  is  only 
forty-six  inches.  New  Caledonia  consequently  has  a  consid- 
erable white  population,  including  some  convicts — as  the 
island  is  a  penal  station — and  produces  coffee,  cattle,  and 
tobacco.  In  addition,  there  are  mines  of  nickel,  chrome,  and 
cobalt  ores,  which  constitute  its  chief  exports.  New  Guinea 
on  the  other  hand,  is  only  partially  explored  because  of  its 
deadly  climate  and  cannibal  inhabitants.  The  forests,  how- 
ever, furnish  sandalwood  and  rubber.  In  the  English  section 
gold  is  mined,  and  some  land  has  been  planted  to  cocoanuts, 
rubber,  and  sisal. 

The  principal  commercial  centers  of  Oceania,  besides 
Hawaii,  are  Yap  in  the  Carolines,  which  has  cable  lines  to 
Menado,  Guam,  and  Shanghai;  Tahiti  in  the  Society  group 
and  Numea  in  New  Caledonia,  both  belonging  to  France; 
Apia  in  Samoa  is  controlled  by.  New  Zealand ;  and  Su\'a  in  the 
Fiji  Islands,  a  British  possession.  Numca  is  a  modern  city 
with  electric  lights  and  street  cars,  and  a  railway  to  Paita. 

304.  British  Australasia.  Australia  and  Tasmania  are 
federated  like  Canada,  while  New  Zealand  remains  separate 
like  Newfoundland.  The  three  constitute  British  Aus- 
tralasia. 

The  people  are  almost  exclusively  of  British  descent,  and 
they  enjoy  practically  complete  self-government.  In  conse- 
quence, their  free  and  devoted  loyalty,  like  that  of  Canada, 
is  something  imique  in  history.     During  the  Boer  War,  f<:)r 


294  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

example,  they  sent  troops"of  their  own  accord,  and  again  in  the 
World  War  the  Anzacs,  as  the  Australian  soldiers  were  called, 
came  to  her  help  and  fought  at  their  own  expense. 

305.  Surface  and  Climate  of  Australasia.  In  respect  to  lati- 
tude, Australasia  corresponds  to  North  America  from  Panama 
to  Portland,  Me. 

Australia  lies  mostly  in  the  trade-wind  zone  (§51),  and 
its  surface  is  shaped  much  like  a  saucer.  The  mountains  near 
the  eastern  shore  thus  condense  most  of  the  moisture  from 
the  southeast  trade  wind  on  the  seaward  slope.  -  This  same 
wind,  however,  descending  toward  the  interior,  is  a  drying 
wind,  which  leaves  three-fourths  of  the  continent  too  dry  for 
agriculture  and  much  of  it  too  dry  even  for  stock  raising 
(§44).  Thus  originates  the  "Dead  Heart  of  Australia."  There 
are,  moreover,  violent  fluctuations  in  the  rainfall  from  year  to 
year,  which  sometimes  cause  widespread  crop  failures.  The 
tropical  section  has,  however,  a  regular  rainy  season  in  summer 
when  the  equatorial  belt  of  calms  and  rains  moves  south; 
while  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand,  lying  in  the  zone  of  westerly 
winds,  have  a  temperate  oceanic  climate  much  like  that  of 
England. 

306.  Forests  and  Fisheries  of  Australasia.  New  Zealand  is 
heavily  timbered  on  the  western  slope,  where  the  rainfall  is 
most  abundant.  Kauri  pine  is  the  finest  native  wood,  and 
Kauri  gum,  obtained  from  the  earth  where  forests  formerly 
stood,  is  an  important  export.  The  Australian  forests  contain 
durable  varieties  of  eucalyptus,  but  little  pine.  They  have 
been  much  reduced  by  ring  barking  the  trees  to  provide  pas- 
turage for  stock.  This  policy  has  in  the  large  run  proved 
suicidal,  as  the  grass  soon  deteriorates  in  that  climate 
without  forest  protection. 

The  commercial  fisheries  are  along  the  northern  coast, 
especially  around  Thursday  Island.  They  yield,  as  in  Oceania, 
chiefly  pearls,  pearl  shells,  and  trepang. 

307.  The  Stock  Industry  in  Australasia.  Australia  is  rather 
pastoral   than  agricultural.     (Fig.  198.)     Moreover,  being  a 


OCEANIA   AND  AUSTRALASIA  295 

country  of  floods  and  droughts,  made  worse  by  destruction 
of  the  forests,  the  losses  in  dry  seasons  are  enormous.  It  is 
estimated  that  40,000,000  sheep  perished  during  the  great 
drought  of  190 1-2.  Sheep  are  most  numerous  in  New  South 
Wales,  horses  and  beef  cattle  in  Queensland,  and  dairy  cattle 
in  Victoria,  where  the  pastures  are  better  watered.  The  chief 
product  is  wool.  (Figs.  197  and  198.)  Both  sheep  and  cattle 
thrive  in  New  Zealand.  The  stock  industry  profits  from 
milking  machines  and  from  refrigerator  ships  which  land  butter 
and  meat  in  London  in  prime  condition.  There  is  also  a  large 
trade  in  provisions  with  India,  and  all  southern  Asia. 


Fig.  197.     Ox  teams  hauling  wool  to  market,  Darling  district,  Australia. 

Rabbits,  once  a  national  pest,  are  also  exported  frozen,  by 
the  shipload.  Victoria  alone  has  utilized  20,000,000  of  them 
for  meat  and  fur  in  a  single  year. 

308.  The  Crops  of  Australasia.  In  Australia,  the  great 
enemy  of  agriculture  is  drought.  Tillage  of  the  soil  is  practi- 
cally confined,  in  the  temperate  section,  to  the  eastern  slope, 
and  to  the  region  of  westerly  winds  south  of  latitude  35°. 
The  largest  acreage  of  plowed  land  is  under  cereals;  but  by 
reason  of  the  capricious  climate,  Australia  is  not  a  reliable 
exporter  of  grain.  (Fig.  198.)  In  dry  years  heavy  imports  of 
wheat  are  necessary. 

Oranges,  olives,  and  grapes  are  also  extensively  cultivated 
around  the  cities  of  Sydney  and  Adelaide.    Australian  raisins 


296  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

and  •wine  compete  sharply   with  like  products  of  California. 

In  the  tropical  section  north  of  Rockhampton,  which  is  a 
thinly-peopled  frontier  district,  there  is  some  production  of 
sugar  cane,  corn,  and  fruit,  especially  btmanas.  Cotton  cul- 
ture has  also  begun.  The  plantations  there  are  still  worked 
to  some  extent  with  colored  contract  labor;  but  the  temperate 
South  insists  that  "all  Australia  must  be  a  white  man's  country," 
and  furtiier  colored  immigration  is  practically  prohibited. 

In  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand,  which  are  cooler  and 
moister,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes  are  groAvn,  besides  all  tem- 
perate fruits.  Tasmania  has  become  an  important  source  of 
apples  for  the  London  market  during  the  northern  winter.  New 
Zealand  has  also  a  native  swamp  fiber,  called  phormium  or 
New  Zealand  flax,  which  is  of  some  commercial  importance. 

309.  Mineral  Products  of  Australasia.  The  discovery  f)f 
gold  (1851)  quickly  populated  Australia  as  it  did  California, 
and  Australia  continues  to  be  one  of  the  great  gold  fields  of  the 
world.  (Figs.  138  and  198.)  The  district  near  Melbourne,  where 
gold  was  first  mined,  is  still  important,  though  western  Austra- 
lia now  has  the  largest  output.  Ncav  Zealand  also  produces 
gold,  largely  from  placer  deposits  worked  by  means  of  floating 
dredges. 

The  tin-producing  belt  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  is  apparently 
continued  through  eastern  Australia  to  Tasmania,  accom- 
panied by  copper.  (Fig.  219.)  The  famous  Broken  Hill 
mines  produce  silver,  lead,  and  zinc.  Australia  ranks  with 
Chile  in  the  production  of  copper,  and  next  to  Canada  and  the 
United  i^latcs  in  silver.  (Fig.  138.)  Iron  occurs  both  on  the 
mainland  and  in  Tasmania. 

Coal  of  good  equality  is  widely  distributed,  but  the  chief 
output  is  around  Newcastle  and  in  New  Zealand.  Being 
convenient  to  water  transportation,  it  is  shipped  to  all  parts 
of  tlie  Pacific,  especially  to  Chile  and  the  United  States. 

310.  Manufactures  of  Australasia.  Australasia  is  still, 
like  South  America,  occupied  chiefly  in  furnishing  food  and 
raw  materials. 


OCEANIA    AND   AUSTRALASIA  297 

It  is  true,  however,  that  protective  tariffs  have  been  enacted 
to  stimulate  industry;  and  that  manufactures  connected  with 
meat,  wool,  and  leather  "have  obvious  advantages.  An 
efficient  agent  is  at  hand  for  tanning  in  the  native  black 
wattle.  Smelting  works  near  the  Newcastle  coal  field,  especially 
at  Littegow,  are  also  advantageously  situated,  though  little  use 
has  been  made  of  native  iron. 

311.  Transportation  in  Australasia.  The  interior  of  Aus- 
tralia is  largely  a  closed  basin  draining  into  salb  lakes.  The 
rivers  are  mostly  short  and  rapid;  even  the  navigable  Murray 
is  almost  dry  at  times.  The  Great  Barrier  Reef,  however, 
provides  sheltered  coastwise  navigation  on  the  east  for  over 
a  thousand  miles. 

Internal  transportation  consequently  depends  on  railroads. 
These  are  chiefly  owned  by  the  several  states,  and  form  a 
connected  system  only  in  eastern,  southern,  and  western 
Australia.  Moreover,  se^'cral  of  the  states  have  different 
gauges,  thus  compelling  ])assengers  and  goods  to  change  cars 
at  the  state  boundaries. 

.V  north-and-south  transcontinental  railway  is  being  buill 
by  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  from  Adelaide  to  P(jrt 
Darwin,  and  an  east-and-wcst  line  from  Adelaide  to  Perth  was 
completed  in  1Q17.  In  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania  trunk  lines 
already  traverse  the  islands  from  north  to  south. 

312.  Commercial  Centers  of  Australasia.  The  shaije  of 
Australia  is  singularly  massi\x\  and  vast  stretches  of  coast  lack- 
any  indentation  capable  of  sheltering  a  ship;  yet  there  are 
se\-eral  harbors  which  have  no  suix'riors  in  the  world. 

As  a  result  of  this  coastal  formation,  many  commercial 
eities  are  river  ports  a  few  miles  from  the  sea,  ^  and  the  st^a- 
ports  which  do  exist  have  recei\'ed  distincti\'e  names.  Thus 
Port  Phillip  is  the  harbor  of  Melbourne,  Port  Jaekson  of 
Sydnc}',  Port  Curtis  of  Gladstone,  Pcjrt  Hunter  of  Newcastle. 
Port  Darwin  is  the  harbor  of  Darwin  (fonncrly  Pahrierstonj. 

1  The  principal  river  ports,  with  their  tiistaiices  from  {hv  .sea,  are: 
Hobart,  12  miles;  Launeeston,  40;  Brisbane,  17;  Rockhampton,  35; 
Perth,  12. 


298  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

The  former  metropolis  was  Melbourne,  in  the  most  fruitful 
part  of  temperate  Australia;  but  this  rank  is  now  held  by 
Sydney,  located  on  the  finest  harbor  in  the  world,  which  is  the 
terminus  of  many  steamship  lines.  These  are  the  two  great 
commercial  centers  of  Australia.  Both  are  of  astonishing,  in 
fact  abnormal,  size  for  so  young  and  so  sparsely-peopled  a 
country.  Other  important  commercial  cities  are  Newcastle, 
the  principal  coal  port;  Brisbane,  the  leading  port  in  Queens- 
land; Adelaide,  in  South  Australia;  and  Fremantle,  on  an 
artificial  harbor  near  Perth,  in  West  Australia.  The  first 
and  last  ports  of  call  are  Fremantle  on  the  southern,  and 
Thursday  Island  on.  the  northern,  route  to  India  and  Suez. 
Albany  occupies  a  similar  position  on  the  route  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  Port  Augusta,  at  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  is 
on  the  east-and-west  transcontinental  railway,  and  Port  Darwin 
in  the  north  will  become  important  when  connected  with  it. 

The  principal  ports  in  Tasmania  are  Hobart  in  the  south  and 
Launceston  in  the  north,  both  on  tidal  rivers  accessible  to  sea- 
going vessels.  In  New  Zealand  the  chief  commercial  centers 
are  Auckland,  where  the  routes  from  Sydney  and  from  San 
Francisco  converge,  and  Wellington ,  on  the  strait  separating  the 
two  main  islands.  Both  have  harbors  that  are  deep,  safe,  and 
spacious.  Auckland,  by  reason  of  its  position,  will  naturally 
become  the  main  port  of  call  between  Sydney  and  Panama. 

313.  Colonies  and  Commerce  of  Australasia.  Both  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand,  though  rather  young  to  aspire  to 
motherhood,  have  colonies.  Australia  administers  British 
New  Guinea  (Territory  of  Papua)  and  other  British  islands 
west  of  Fiji.  New  Zealand  has  taken  over  most  of  the  British 
islands  east  and  northeast  of  Tonga.  ^ 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Australasia  consists  mainly  in  the 

export  of  wool,  metals,  meat  and  other  animal  products,  and 

1  These  embrace  the  Cook  Islands,  nine  in  number,  also  Niue,  Palmers- 
ton,  Manahiki,  Rakaanga,  Danger,  and  Suvvarrow  islands;  total  area  280 
square  miles,  pojmlation,  13,000.  The  last  named,  though  a  coral  atoll, 
has  a  dcejj  lagoon  harbor,  conmiodious  and  perfectly  sheltered.  Practi- 
cally all  of  these  islands  were  formerly  occupied  by  Americans  under  the 
Guano  Act  (§227). 


OCEANIA    AND  AUSTRALASIA 


299 


the  import  of  manufactured  goods.  The  bulk  of  the  commerce 
is  with  Great  Britain.  (Fig.  198.)  One  reason  for  this  fact 
is  that  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  until  recently  forced  goods  from 
New  York  to  go  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  or  around  Cape  Horn. 


Crops 


Exports  \>y  classes 


Imports  by  countries 

Data  from  Official  Year  Book,  1914 


Fig.  198.     Crops  and  commerce  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  five-year 
averages.    Land  in  crops,  11.5  million  acres,  or  0.6%  of  area.    Com- 
merce {millions  of  dollars):  exports,  Jjp,  chiefly  (61%)  to 
Great  Britain  and  British  possessions;  imports,  2g8, 
largely  textiles  and  metal  manufactures. 

Another  reason  is  the  fact  that  most  of  the  capital  invested  in 
Australia  is  English.  Finally  there  is  the  political  relation  to 
Great  Britain  which  has  caused  British  goods  to  be  admitted 
at  lower  tariff  rates  than  other  goods.  In  this  case,  trade 
unmistakably  does  follow  the  flag. 


XXn— JAPAN  AND  CHOSEN  {KOREA) 

314.  The  Empire  of  the  "Rising  Sun.  Asia  (Fig.  201)  is 
larger  than  North  and  So;  :h  America  combined,  and  its 
population  embraces  more  than  half  the  human  race. 

Fringing  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  are  many  islands,'  the  tips 
of  a  growing  mountain  system,  which  largely  shelter  from  the 
Pacific  surges  a  series  of  inland  seas.  These  islands,  from 
Kamchatka  and  Sakhalin  (latitude  50°)  as  far  south  as  the 
Philippines,    constitute    the    Empire   of   Japan.     (Fig.  199.) 


,asto8t"i' 


^^         [Japan  AND  Chose 
,ne8®      i  Scale 

0        50      TOP  goo  3C 

I  i/0  i'Uitute  Miles  tu  vne  im 
■  I        Railways  - 


.,-n-amship  lines--.—- 
Xa-lgablcHvera-.      . 


Fig.  199.     Japan. 

By  reason  of  this  position  with  reference  to  Asia,  and  despite 
a  great  difference  in  climate,  Japan  is  the  Great  Britain  and 
the  Sea  of  Japan  is  the  North  Sea,  of  the  Far  East. 

The  Japanese,  though  speaking  a  Mongolian  tongue,  differ 
radically  from  the  Chinese  and  Koreans,  partly  because  of 
mixture  with  some  other  race,  presumably  the  Malay,  and  still 
more  because   of  their  insular   environment.     The   sea  is  a 

(300) 


Revised,  iqr^ 


Fig.    201. 


>  Cape  Ueshnet 


ia,   IQ14. 


by  Rand  McKaUy  &•  Coinfmny 


yAPAM  AND  CHOSEN  3°! 

Carrier  of  new  ideas  no  less  than  of  new  commodities.  The 
Japanese  thus  aspire  to  become  in  fact  what  their  position 
and  character  tend  to  make  them — the  English  of  the  East. 

Modem  Japan  began  when  Commodore  Perry  with  an 
American  fleet  opened  the  country  to  commerce  (1854),  Soon 
the  Mikado,^  who  had  been  stripped  of  power  by  the  feudal 
nobles,  regained  his  authority  (1868),  induced  the  feudal  lords 
to  resign  their  prerogatives  (187 1),  and  freely  opened  Japan 
to  modem  civilization.  To-day  Japan,  equipped  with  a 
powerful  army  and  navy,  an  elective  parliament,  eflficient 
public  schools,  and  a  ruling  class  educated  in  all  modern  arts 
and  sciences,  ranks  with  the  Great  Powers  of  the  world,  even 
successfully  disputing  with  Russia  the  Empire  of  the  East. 
There  is  no  other  example  in  history  of  such  marvelous 
progress. 

315.  Surface  and  Climate  of  Japan.  The  surface  is 
generally  mountainous,  and  the  coast  line  very  broken. 
As  the  land  is  unstable,  apparently  rising  slowly,  earthquakes 
are  frequent;  and  probably  for  the  same  reason,  volcanoes  are 
nvtmerous. 

The  main  islands  correspond  in  latitude  to  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  The  climate  is,  however,  warmer  toward  the  south 
on  accoimt  of  the  Japan  current  than  the  latitude  would 
indicate;  and  at  the  same  time  colder  toward  the  north, 
especially  in  Yezo  (Hokkaido) ,  because  of  a  current  descend- 
ing from  Bering  Strait.  Taiwan  (Formosa),  the  southern 
Riu-kiu,  and  the  Bonin  islands  are  tropical.  The  rainfall  is 
heavy  (80  inches) ,  especially  on  the  south  coast  and  in  summer 
when  the  monsoon  wind  blows  toward  the  continent  (§51). 

3 16.  The  Fisheries  of  Japan.  Nowhere  else  except  in  China 
do  fish  play  so  large  a  part  in  the  life  of  a  great  nation.  More 
than  3,000,000  people  live  by  fishing;  for  all,  fish  and  rice  are 
the  staple  foods.   Recently  salmon  canneries  have  begun  work. 

•Descended,  according  to  Japanese  accounts,  from  the  oldest  royal 
house  in  the  world,  which  is  reputed  to  have  reigned  since  660  B.  C. — 
that  is,  since  three  centuries  before  Alexander  the  Great. 


302 


COMMERCIA  L     GEOGRA  FH  \ ' 


Fish  also  serve  extensively  as  a  fertilizer.  Japan  surpasses 
even  the  United  States  in  scientific  fish  culture.  By  the 
treaty  with  Russia  (1905),  Japan  has  also  acquired  extensive 
and  very  valuable  fishing  rights  along  the  Siberian  coast. 

317.  The  Forests  of  Japan.  Forests  still  cover  the  upper 
slopes,  cedar  serving  for  shipbuilding,  cypress  for  furniture 
and  ornaments.  Yezo  has  also  great  oak  forests.  For  most 
purposes,  however,  bamboo  is  employed.  (Fig.  203.)  Peculiar 
to  eastern  Asia  are  the  wax  tree,  producing  an  oil  used  in 
place  of  animal  fat;  the  lacquer  tree,  yielding  a  fine  and  very 
durable  varnish;  the  paper  mulberry;  and  the  camphor  laurel, 

which  is  now  found 
chiefly  in  Taiwan. 
Camphor  is,  next  to 
turpentine,  the 
most  important 
commercially  of  the 
essential  oils 
obtained  by  distil- 
lation. It  is  used 
mainly  in  the 
manufacture  of 
celluloid.  The 
camphor  trade  is 
now  a  government 
monopoly. 

318.  Agricultural 
Products  of  Japan. 
In  Japan,  as  in 
south  and  central 
China,  most  farms 
are  under  two  acres 
in  size,  owing  to  the 
Fig.  203.     Groves  of  bmnhoo  in  Japan.  density   of   popula- 

tifm  on  the  arable  lands.  The  soil  is  tilled  by  hand,  with 
rude  spades  and  hoes,  but  so  carefully  that  the  country  is  a 


JAPAN  AXD  CHOSEN 


2>oi 


vast  garden.     This  method  of  cultivation  leaves  very  little 

room  for  live  stock.     Meat  and  dairy  products  are  therefore 

comparatively  little 

used.      Until    very 

recently  milk, which 

is  now  coming  into 

use,   was   regarded 

by  the  Japanese  (as 

cheese  still  is  by  the 

Chinese)  with  a  sort 

of  horror. 

The  principal 
food  crop  is  rice, 
grown  on  all  low- 
lands and  many  of 
the  hillsides,  as  far 
as  they  can  be  ter- 
raced, to  latitude 
40°.  However,  the 
crop  is  insufhcient 
for  domestic  use,  as 
the    population    of 


Fig. 


204. 


Copjright,  1904,  by  B.  L.  Singl'T 

Japanese  threshing  niachmc 
in  full  swing. 


Japan  exceeds  50,000,000  in  a  country  smaller  than  Cali- 
fornia. Moreover,  only  15.7  per  cent  of  the  soil  is  arable. 
Considerable  rice  is,  however,  exported,  while  cheaper  grades 
are  imported  for  domestic  use.  There  is  also  a  limited  crop  of 
barley,  wheat,  and  rye,  which  are  not  infrequently  njtated 
with  rice  on  the  same  soil.  Grain  is  usually  cut  and  threshed 
by  hand.  (Fig.  204.)  Soy  beans,  being  rich  in  nitrogen,  ser\-e 
as  a  partial  substitute  for  meat.  Plums,  persimmons,  figs, 
and   oranges    are    the   common    fruits. 

Raw  silk  (Fig.  206),  largely  from  the  Tokyo  district,  and  tea 
from  southern  Japan  and  Taiwan  (Formosa),  are  the  principal 
agricultural  exports.  (Fig.  205.)  Formosa  tea  is  reckoned  the 
best  in  the  world.  Tobacco  and  hemp  are  also  common  crops 
for  local  use,  and  sugar  cane  is  of  some  importance  in  Taiwan. 


304 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


319.     Mineral  Resources  of  Japan.     Japan  has  a  variety 
of  mineral  resources,  though  the  annual  output  is  far  inferior 

in  value  to  the  farm 
products. 

The  principal, 
in  fact  the  only 
important,  export 
minerals  are  coal 
and  copper.  Coal  of 
fair  quality  occurs 
in  several  fields 
from  southern  Sak- 
halin, but  recently 
recovered  from 
Russia  (  1905  ),  to 
Taiwan.  Yezo 
alone  is  said  to  con- 
tain two-thirds  as 
much  coal  land  as 
Great  Britain.  In 
addition  to  copper, 
which  was  the  lead- 


FiG.  205. 


Copjiight,  1901,  by  B,  L.  Singley 

Gathering  tea  near  Kyoto,  Japan. 


ing  metal  of  Old  Japan,  there  is  now  a  small  output  of 
silver,  lead,  antimony  (used  in  type  metal),  and  manganese. 
Iron  ore  is  present  but  as  yet  is  not  extensively  mined. 
Petroleum  fields  have  been  opened  in  the  north  which  partially 
meet  the  domestic  demand.  Sulphur  is  abundant  owing  to 
the  numerous  volcanoes. 

320.  Handicrafts  of  Japan.  Hand  work  reached  its 
greatest  development  in  countries  long  settled  and  densely 
peopled,  like  Japan,  China,  and  India,  where  the  hard  struggle 
for  existence  early  taught  industrious  habits.  Nowhere  did 
hand  work  reach  greater  perfection  than  in  Japan,  whose 
people  are  distinguished  not  only  for  cleanliness,  politeness, 
and  courage,  but  also  for  an  artistic  instinct  that  gives  their 
wares  a  peculiar  grace  and  beauty. 


JAPAN  AND  CHOSEN 


305 


Among  the  handicraft  products  in  which  Japan  excels  are 
fine  strong  paper  used  extensively  in  place  of  leather,  oil- 
cloth, and  glass;  matting  of  varied  design;  porcelain,  which 
was  originally  a  Chinese  invention ;  lacquered  and  enameled 
goods;  and  fine  metal  work  in  gold,  silver,  bronze,  and  steel. 
Japanese  swords,  for  example,  are  reckoned  superior  to  the 
best  from  Damascus.  These  art  crafts  reach  their  highest 
development  at  Nagoya  and  the  ancient  capital,  Kyoto, 

321.  Modem  Manufactures  of  Japan.  Japanese  matches, 
made  with  native  sulphur,  have  supplanted  the  Swedish 
product  in  east  Asia.  The  tobacco  industry,  a  government 
monopoly,  also  supports  an  export  trade.  Japanese  sword- 
smiths,  turning  their  skill  in  metals  to  the  arts  of  peace,  now 
make  fine  clocks  and  surgical  instruments.  The  shipbuilding 
yards  at  Nagasaki  employ  both  wood  and  steel ;  and  there  are 


j  _^ 

■-'-■:.:■         j!^'    ^"    ^-'fjt          .-i^ 

r^^^Kr       *     :   -^ 

1           ^-m 

1 

^i^^^^^^^^^^^BHJi^CT'^iy^'*^^ 

CourteSY  uf  Rear  Admiral  11.  H  ebe.ei 


Fig.  206.     Reeling  silk  from  cocoons  in  Japan. 

large  iron  works  at  Wakamatsu,  belonging  to  the  government. 
These,  however",  have  often  been  run  at  a  loss. 


.^o6  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

The  most  important  modern  industry  is  the  manufacture  of 
textiles,  especially  of  cottons,  which  form  an  important  export. 
The  cotton  factories  employ  mostly  women  and  children,  paying 
them  ten  to  fifteen  cents  a  day.  It  is  this  cheap  labor  that 
enables  Japan  to  compete  with  Europe  in  the  markets  of  China. 
Hemp  spinning  and  the  making  of  fish  nets  also  occupy  several 
factories,  as  well  as  many  people  in  their  homes,  though  less 
than  before  the  introduction  of  cotton.  Cotton  and  hemp  are 
combined  in  Ozaka  carpets.  Silk  and  even  woolen  mills  are 
likewise  at  work,  the  latter  using  imported  materials. 

Modern  manufactures  center  at  Ozaka,  the  "Fall  River  of 
Japan,"  with  the  port  of  Kobe,  both  having  water  powder  and 
ready  access  to  coal.  Within  one  hundred  miles  of  Ozaka 
are  found  a  third  of  the  population  of  the  empire  and  all  the 
large  cities  except  Tokyo  and  Yokohama.  At  Ozaka  is  a 
permanent  Commercial  Museum  of  Japanese  wares.  Ozaka, 
Tokyo,  and  Kobe  also  liave  Commercial  High  Schools. 

322.  Transportation  and  Trade  Centers  of  Japan.  Human 
porters  and  pack  horses  are  tlie  usual  modes  of  conveyance 
in  the  country,  while  jinrikishas  drawn  by  men  are  used  in  the 
cities.  The  rapid  extension  of  railroads,  however,  has  revo- 
lutionized long-distance  transportation ^  making  possible  an 
unparalleled  expansion  of  foreign  trade.  Even  Taiwan, 
recently  a  tropical  wilderness,  now  has  a  trunk  line  of  railway 
traversing  the  island. 

The  indented  coast  line  provides  manv  superb  harbors. 
The  Japanese  are  thus  naturally  a  seafaring  folk,  who  are  not 
inaptly  called  "the  Vikings  of  Asia,"  and  they  have  served 
a  long  apprenticeship  as  deep-sea  fishermen.  The}^  aim  at 
nothing  less  than  control  of  the  carrying  trade  on  the  Pacific. 
To  that  end,  the  government  grants  heavy  shipping  subsidies. 
Already  the  Japanese  own  and  officer  steamship  lines  to 
North  and  South  America,  x\ustralia,  and  all  parts  of  the 
Orient.  They  have  almost  a  monopoly  in  Korean  ports, 
while  in  Chinese  waters  they  made  such  progress  that  they 
now  stand  next  in  tonnage  to  the  English. 


7APAM  AND  CHOSEN 


307 


Toward  America,  the  principal  commercial  city  is  Yoko- 
hama, situated  a  few  miles  from  Tokyo  on  a  large  bay  where 
an  artificial  harbor  was  necessary,  as  at  Manila.  In  the 
north,  Hakodate  is  a  coaling  and  fishing  port.  Toward  China, 
the  chief  coaling  and  naval  station  is  Nagasaki,  which  has 
coal  on  its  very  shores.  Nagasaki  is  also  becoming  a  trans- 
shipment port  for  Siberia,  Chosen,  and  northern  China.  Com- 
merce in  heavy  commodities,  however,  seeks  the  port  lying 
farthest  inland;  hence  Kobe,  on  a  splendid  landlocked  harbor 
near  the  head  of  th6  great  Inland  Sea  of  Japan,  commands 


Crops 


Imports  by  couutrios 


Exports  bj-  articles 

Data  from  Commercial  Relations  of  U.S  ,  1912,  and  Statesman's  Year  Books,  1912-1  "1 

Fig.  207.     Crops  and  commerce  of  Japan.     The  cultivated  land  in  Japan, 

exclusive  of  Taiwan,  and  Karafuto  {Sakhalin,)  is  16.3  million  acres  or 

77'  c  of  area,  th';  rest  being  mountainous.     Commerce  {millions  of 

dollars):   exports    {five-year  average),  241,  chiefly  to    U.  S. 

(jo'/c),  China  (20%),  and  France;  imports  {1Q12),  308, 

largely  raw  cotton,  rice,  and  manufactures. 

the  bulk  of  the  China  trade.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  chief  commer^  ial 
center  of  Japan.  The  future  of  Japan  thus  unmistakably 
lies  in  Asia. 

In  Taiwan  the  mountains  meet  the  sea  in  a  series  of 
towering  cliffs,  and  natural  liarbors  are  lacking.  Kelung, 
which  has  a  good  artificial  harbor,  is  the  chief  ship])ing 
port. 

323.  The  Commerce  of  Japan,  Japan  exports  largely 
raw  silk,  teas,  and  minerals,  besides  artistic  handiwork;  but 
also  more  and  more  factory  products,  notably  cotton  and  silk 
goods.  On  the  other  hand,  Japan  imports  mainly  food  and 
raw  materials,  especially  cotton  from  India.      (Fig.  207.) 


3o8  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

The  fact  is  that  the  overburdened  land  cannot  support  the 
teeming  population^  which  is  still  increasing  at  the  rate  of 
nearly  a  half  million  a  year.  The  Japanese  must,  therefore, 
either  acquire  new  lands  to  cultivate,  or  new  markets  for 
manufactured  goods,  or  they  must  starve.  This  grim  neces- 
sity, underlies  their  rapid  development  as  a  manufacturing 
and  commercial  nation.  It  also  explains  their  heroic  battle 
against  Russia  in  Manchuria  (1904). 

324.  "The  Hermit  Nation."  The  people  of  Chosen  (Korea) , 
finely  developed  physically,  have  been  known  for  centuries  as 
the  "oxen  of  the  East,"  submitting  without  a  murmvu:  to  every 
sort  of  oppression  from  their  rulers;  and  their  government 
has  long  been  a  corrupt  and  powerless  oriental  despotism.  As 
a  result  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  Chosen  (about  the  size  of 
North  and  South  Carolina  and  having  a  population  of  perhaps 
ten  millions)  became  a  Japanese  protectorate  and  was  later 
formally  annexed  to  Japan.  Rich  in  natural  resources  and 
thinly  peopled  compared  to  Japan,  Chosen  is  by  virtue  of  its 
position  the  natural  field  for  Japanese  expansion. 

325.  The  Products  of  Chosen.  .  Corresponding  in  latitude 
to  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Boston  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  Chosen 
has  a  temperate  climate  and  fertile  soil,  though  the  surface 
is  somewhat  mountainous.  The  uplands  bear  valuable  forests 
both  of  pine  and  hard  woods,  especially  along  the  Yalu  River; 
and  the  forests  abound  in  fur-bearing  animals  such  as  the 
Korean  tiger,  fox,  and  squirrel.  In  the  main,  however,  Chosen 
is  an  agricultural  country.  In  the  broad  valleys  the  usual 
temperate  crops  are  grown ;  toward  the  south  also  rice,  cotton, 
beans,  and  tobacco.  Rice  alone  amounts  to  nearly  half  the 
exports.  Another  crop  is  ginseng,  a  worthless  root  much 
prized  by  the  Chinese  as  a  cure-all.  Live  stock  and  animal 
products  are  also  of  some  importance. 

The  mountains  are  rich  in  minerals,  including  copper,  coal, 
and  iron.  Only  gold,  however,  is  extensively  mined,  chiefly 
by  Americans.  The  sole  manufactures  for  the  market  are 
paper  and  straw  hats,  both  made  by  hand. 


7APA!^  AND  CHOSEN 


309 


326.  Trade  Routes  of  Chosen.  The  east  coast  rises  steeply 
from  the  sea  in  forest-covered  mountains.  There  is,  however, 
one  spacious  bay  on  which  Wonsan  (Gensan),  the  port  of  an 
important  mineral  district,  is  located.  The  western  slope,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  gradual,  and  five  of  the  rivers  are  navigable 
in  their  lower  reaches.  For  land  transportation  crude  carts 
and  sleds  are  used.  (Fig.  208.)     The  principal  commercial  port^ 


Fig.  208.     Korean  oxen  and  sleds. 

on  this  coast,  and  indeed  in  allChosen,is  Chemulpo,  which  has 

both  river  and  rail  connection  with  the  capital.     This  railway 

crosses  the  peninsula  to  Wonsan.    In  the  south  the  principal 

port  is  Fusan,  situated  on  a  deep  bay  where  the  Korean  Strait 

is    narrowest    (120    miles).     Ferryboats    from    Japan    there 

connect  with  the  trunk  railway,  which  traverses  Chosen  and 

Manchuria,  bringing  Tokyo  within  twelve  days  of  Paris  by 

rail. 

1  Another  having  a  much  better  harbor  is  Chinnampo,  the  port  of  the 
Phyongyang  district. 


XX n I—THE   CHINESE   REPUBLIC 

327.  "A  Cycle  of  Cathay."  China  is  the  oldest  nation 
in  the  world.  Rome  seems  ancient  to-day;  but  when  Rome 
was  still  a  place  without  a  name,  China  already  looked  back 
on  more  centuries  than  have  since  elapsed. 

Measured  by  all  material  standards,  moreover,  the  Chinese 
RcpubHc  is  most  impressive.  It  is  a  third  larger  than  the 
United  States.  Its  population,  in  round  numbers  400,000,000, 
is  more  than  a  fourth  of  the  human  race.  Finally  the  Chinese 
thrive  in  conditions  where  no  other  race  could  exist,  and 
surpass  all  nations  in  patient  endurance  of  labor. 

But  before  the  shock  of  arms,  the  colossus  crumbles. 
Ancient  renown,  numbers,  wealth,  and  industry  are  alike 
powerless  to  save  a  nation  from  that  searching  and  remorseless 
test  of  efficiency.  The  difficulty  seems  to  be  that  China 
acquired  her  national  characteristics  in  the  many  ages  during 
\\-hich  she  was  effectually  isolated  by  seas,  mountains,  and 
deserts,  forming  a  world  in  herself.  As  a  result,  China  is 
like  a  house  built  of  bricks  without  mortar.  Her  people, 
though  rating  life  of  little  worth,  are  not  brave  in  battle, 
and  the  family  tie  is  so  strong  among  them  that  public  spirit 
or  national  patriotism  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist.  China  thus 
appears  badly  equipped  for  the  modem  struggle  for  existence 
of  nations.  After  the  o\'erthrow  of  the  alien  Manchu 
dynasty  by  men  educated  abroad,  a  nominal  "republic" 
was  indeed  set  up,  but  this  quickly  fell  under  the  absolute 
rule  of  the  first  president  and  then  imder  a  virtual  Japanese 
protectorate  (1915). 

328.  Physical  Features.  The  Chinese  RepubHc  extends 
from  the  latitude  of  Jamaica  to  that  of  Labrador,  and  has  ;i 
corresponding  variety  of  climate.   (Fig.  209.) 

Eastern  China  consists  in  the  main  of  three  great  river 
valleys,  while  between  them  the  mountain  ranges  spread  out 

(310) 


THE  CHINESE   REPUBLIC 


3" 


like  a  fan  toward  the  east,  thus  admitting  the  rain-bearing 
monsoon  winds  of  summer  to  the  interior  (§51). 
-Central  Asia,  however,  is. an  enormous  plateau,  arid  because 
far  from  the  sea  and  shut  off  from  it  by  mountains.  Tibet, 
inclosed  between  the  Himalayas  and  parallel  ranges,  resem- 
bles the  Andean  plateaus,  but  is  even  loftier.  Mongolia  and 
East  Turkestan,  on  the  other  hand,  are  comparatively  low 
(2,000-3,000  feet)  and  slope  toward  the  center,  being  no  doubt 


Fig.  209 


China. 


the  bed  of  an  ancient  sea.     In  this. region  crops  can  be  grown 
only  on  irrigated  lands  near  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 

The  fertile  yellow  loess  of  the  upper  Hwang-ho,  brought  by 
the  westerly  winds  of  winter  from  central  Asia,  and  the 
rich  volcanic  soil  of  the  upper  Yangtse-kiang,  are  cultivated 
as  high  as  8,000  feet.  The  lower  river  valleys  are  even  more 
fertile ;  but  they  are  largely  below  the  river  level  and  subject 


14 


312 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


tu  disastrous  floods  despite,  or  rather  because  of,  the  system 
of  dikes;  for  the  sediment,  being  deposited  only  in  the  river 
bed,  finally  raises  the  river  bodily  above  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. It  is  this  process  of  putting  the  river  on  stilts  that  has 
made  the  Hwang-hoi  "China's  Sorrow." 

329.  Chinese  Fisheries  and  Forests.  In  China,  as  in  Japan, 
fish  and  rice  are  jointly  the  staff  of  life.  Forty  millions  are 
believed  to  live  in  large  part  by  fishing,  plying  their  trade  by 
day  and  night  with  seines,  lines,  cormorants,  and  every 
imaginable  device.     The  trade  in  fish  is,  however,  mostly  local. 


I'tar  l:<"k  of  .Aut'.cuIiu  r.  1'.«'7,  »u  H 

Fir,.  2  to.     Couimenial  staples  of  eastern  Asia.    Totals:  rice,  J ,66(j 
million  hundred  weii^ht  in  jgo6;    tea,  i  loS  million  pounds  in 
IQ06;  raw  silk,  /j.j  million  pounds  in  igo8. 

Tlie  forests  have  been  almost  entirely  cut  away,  with  dis- 
astrous results  to  soil  and  water  ways,  except  in  Manchuria, 
where  there  are  both  pine  and  hard  woods.  The  Yalu  River 
brings  down  some  logs  to  sawmills  near  the  sea.  The  common 
])eople  use  tlie  bamboo  for  almost  every  conceivable  purpose. 
"China  wax''  is  a  substance  of  some  commercial  value  for 
candles,  deposited  by  an  insect  on  a  species  of  oak  in  southern 
China.     Wood  oil,  obtained  from  nuts,  is  used  in  ^^arnish. 

330.     Chinese  Agriculture.     It  Mas  fitting  that  the  h^m])eror 

of  China  should  open  every  planting  season  by  himself  plowing 

'The  Hwang-ho  has  changed  its  course  no  less  than  eleven 
times  in  twenty-live  ccntiiries,  the  last  tinie  (itS52)  moving  its  mouth 
over  300  miles.  A  minor  outbreak  (1887)  drowned  at  least  a  million 
people.  The  same  system  of  dikes  or  levees  is  in  operation  on  the 
lower  Mississippi  and  bids  fair  in  time  to  have  the  same  results.  In 
Egypt,  on  the  other  hand,  the  floods  are  alloAved  to  overspread  and 
fertilize  the  land. 


THE   CHINESE   REPUBLIC 


313 


a  furrow,  for  most  of  the  people  dwell  in  villages  and  live  from 
the  soil.  The  list  of  great  cities  is  indeed  imposing;  but  the 
proportion  of  urban 
population  is,  after 
all,  trifling. 

From  the  Yangtse 
Valley  south,  rice  is 
by  far  the  most  im- 
portant food  crop; 
though  other  cereals 
and  beans  are  some- 
times  grown  in 
winter.  (Fig.  210.) 
Southern  fruits 
abound,  particular- 
ly oranges.  Sugar 
cane  and  cassia,  a 
kind  of  cinnamon, 
are  at  home  in  the 
Si-kiang  Valley. 
Ramie,  hemp,  and 
in  recent  years  cot- 
ton, are  planted  in 
small  patches  to  be 
spun  and  woven  by 
the  women.  Cotton  is  also  exported  to  some  extent,  princi- 
pally to  Japan.  Ramie  or  China  grass  is  preeminent  for 
luster,  fineness,  and  strength,  but  the  extraction  of  the  fiber 
is  difficult  and  therefore  expensive. 

In  the  southern  uplands,  much  land  was  planted  in  tobacco 
and  in  opium  poppies,^  so  much,  indeed,  that  foodstuffs  had  to 
be  imported.  The  principal  hill  products  are,  however,  silk 
and  tea,  which  originally  opened  China  to  foreign  commerce. 

1  The  Chinese  government  has  recently,  however,  endeavored,  with  more 
success  than  any  one  expected,  to  check  the  cultivation  of  poppies,  in  order 
to  get  rid  of  opium  smoking  which  has  become  a  national  danger. 


Fig.  211.     Coolies  in  a  treadmill  pumping 
water  for  flooding  rice  fields. 


314  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Since  the  earliest  days  China  has  been  preeminently  the  Land 
of  Silk.  In  recent  years  the  tea  crop  has  declined  in  conse- 
quence of  export  duties  and  the  competition  of  the  machine- 
cured  tea  of  Ceylon.  In  general,  the  hot,  wet  summers  enable 
southern  crops  to  be  grown  far  beyond  their  usual  limits,  rice 
and  cotton,  for  example,  almost  to  the  latitude  of  Chicago. 
In  northern  China  and  Manchuria,  the  usual  crops  are  beans 
and  cereals,  especially  wheat  and  millet.  Niuchwang  (New- 
chwang)  is  the  greatest  bean  market  in  the  world,  Manchuria 
and  Mongolia  east  of  the  Khingan  Range  probably  rival  the 
United  States  in  amount  of  land  adapted  to  spring  wheat. 


Fig.  212.     Plowing  by  man  power  in  China. 

j\Iuch  of  this  is  still  under  grass,  being  held  by  Manchu  chiefs 
who  pasture  vast  herds  upon  it:  but  Harbin,  on  the  navigable 
Sungari  where  the  railway  forks  to  Vladivostok  and  Port  Arthur, 
is  already  a  great  milling  center.  Modem  flour  mills  have  also 
hccn  established  as  far  south  as  Shanghai. 

China  proper  is  so  frightfully  overcrowded  with  people  try- 
ing to  live  l;)y  agriculture  (Figs.  211  and  212)  that  domestic  ani- 
mals are  scarce,  except  poultry  and  hogs.  Moreover,  Buddhism 
disc(jurages  the  eating  of  meat;  though  this  does  not  prevent 
it  in  Tibet  and  Mongolia,  where  lack  of  water  severely  limits 
cTop  growing.  Dairy  products  arc  consequently  of  little 
importance,    though    eggs    arc    aV)undant    and    cheap,    being 


THE   CHINESE  REPUBLIC  315 

largely  exported.  Vegetable  oils  are  commonly  used  in  place 
of  butter.  The  chief  sources  of  table  oils  are  sesame,  a  plant 
much  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Babylonians,  and  (strange  as 
it  may  seem  to  those  who  remember  youthful  experiences)  the 
castor  plant.  In  the  north,  soy  beans  are  also  pressed  for  oil, 
the  bean  cake  afterward  serving  as  a  fertilizer. 

In  central  Asia,  unlike  China  proper,  there  are  many  shce]:) 
and  goats,  besides  some  horses  and  camels,  though  few  cattle. 
The  exports  are  chiefly  wool  and  skins.  In  Tibet  the  yak  is 
important  as  a  burden  bearer;  and  a  species  of  deer  is  found 
which  yields  musk,  well  known  as  a  perfume. 

331.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  Chinese  Republic.  Chinese 
civilization  is  based  on  the  soil,  European  civilization  on  the 
under-earth.  Mining  has  been  almost  impossible  in  China 
lest,  as  the  people  ignorantly  feared,  the  "earth-devils"  be  let 
loose.  Yet  China  is  rich  in  many,  and  enormously  rich  in  a 
few  minerals. 

The  plateau  of  Yunnan  in  the  southwest  contains  copper, 
silver,  lead,  tin,  gold,  antimony,  and  vast  sulphur  beds. 
The  same  minerals  exist  in  the  Shantung  (eastern)  and  Shansi 
(western)  mountains;  but  the  special  wealth  of  these  districts 
is  in  coal  and  iron.  Shansi  alone  contains,  according  to  some 
reports,  twenty  times  as  much  anthracite  coal  land  as  the 
United  vStates.  Coal  underlies,  in  whole  or  in  part,  a  number 
of  the  other  provinces  of  China,  besides  Manchuria.  Although 
the  latest  investigation^  has  much  reduced  the  previous  esti- 
mates of  the  Chinese  coal  reserves,  it  still  appears  that  China 
has  great  coal  fields,  some  of  them  near  large  deposits  of 
iron  ore. 

332.  Chinese  Manufactures.  Until  recent  years,  Chinese 
manufactures  were  household  or  at  most  neighborhood  indus- 
tries. Deserving  of  mention,  besides  the  textiles  woven  in 
the  homes  of  the  people,  are  the  copper  and  bronze  goods  of 
Yunnan;  the  porcelain  of  Kingtechin;  the  "India"  ink  of 
Nanking;  the  carving  in  jade,  ivory,  and  wood  of  Canton; 

'  Bailey  Willis,  Mineral  Resources  of  China  (Economic  Geology,  1908). 


3i6  COMMERCIAL     GEOGkAPiiV 

the  paper,  straw,  matting,  and  bamboo  goods,  fans,  and  fire- 
works of  innumerable  cities.  The  best  Chinese  wares,  though 
possibly  less  artistic,  are  often  more  solid  and  durable  than 
the  Japanese. 

The  introduction  of  modern  machinery  in  such  a  densely- 
peopled  country  throws  millions  out  of  the  employments 
which  they  and  their  fathers  have  followed  for  many  genera- 
tions. Nevertheless,  power  machinery  has  been  introduced  in  the 
cotton  and  other  mills  at  Shanghai  and  vicinity  and  in  the  iron 
industry  near  Hankow,  where  coal  and  iron  lie  close  together. 
Machinery  is  also  slowly  making  its  way  into  other  industries. 

Not  a  few  observers,  beholding  the  numbers  and  endurance 
of  the  Chinese,  are  haunted  by  the  specter  of  the  "yellow 
terror,"  fearing  that  they  will  possess  by  industry,  and  perhaps 
eventually  by  arms,  the  greater  part  of  the  world.  But  an 
unmilitary  people  cannot  become  military  by  learning  the 
manual  of  arms;  nor  can  the  Chinese  adopt  modern  machinery 
yet  permanently  keep  their  present  low  standard  of  living, 
which  now  enables  Chinese  cheap  labor  to  defy  competition. 

333.  Transportation  in  China.  Transportation  is  chiefly  by 
water,  for  which  the  great  rivers,  except  the  sandy  Hwang-ho, 


Fig.  213.     Coolies  with  loads  and  resting  sticks. 


THE   CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


317 


afford  excellent  facilities.     Canals  are  also  numerous.     The 
Grand  Canal,  built  in  the  seventh  century  and  restored  by 


Courtesy  Popular  Mcclmnios 


Fig.  214.     Chinamen  bringing  goods  to  market  on  sailing  wheelbarrows. 

Kublai  Khan  (1289),  connects  the  Yangtse-kiang  with  the 
Pei-ho  at  Tientsin  (700  miles).  It  served  originally  to  carry 
the  rice  tribute  of  the  southern  provinces  to  Peking,  but 
it  is  now  almost  useless  in  its  northern  half  and  cannot  com- 
pete either  with  railways  or  with  steam  transportation  by  sea. 

On  land,  porters,  wheelbarrows,  and  sedan  chairs  are  used 
(Figs.  213  and  214);  but  animal  power  is  employed  in 
Manchuria  and  northern  China,  where  the  cold  winters  render 
the  country  passable  for  carts.  The  caravan  trade  across 
Mongolia  is  by  camels,  though  recently  an  automobile  line  has 
been  established.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  ocean  carriage  in- 
jures tea,  much  of  the  tea  for  Europe  is  still  conveyed  by  land. 

The  first  locomotives  in  China  were  worshiped  as  dragons; 
the  first  railway  (1876)  was  bough-t  up  by  the  authorities  and 
destroyed.  But  all  that  is  changed.  The  Chinese  govern- 
ment, indeed,  for  a  time  went  to  the  other  extreme,  granting 
to  the  Russians  in  Manchuria,  the  Germans  in  Shantung,  the 
French  in  Yunnan,  and  other  nations  elsewhere,  exclusive 
railway  and  mining  rights  that  endanger  the  very  integrity 


3lH  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

and  independence  of  the  Chinese  RepubUc.  Recently,  realiz- 
ing this  danger,  the  government  has  adopted  the  policy  of 
building  railways  itself  with  Chinese  capital. 

The  principal  railways  already  open  are:  (i)  the  exten- 
sions of  the  Siberian  line  across  Manchuria  to  Vladivostok  and 
Port  Arthur;  (2)  the  line  connecting  this  Manchurian  system 
with  the  Chosen  railway  and  with  Tientsin,  completing  the 
all-rail  route  from  Paris  to  Peking;  (3)  the  Peking-Hankow 
line  (755  miles)  which  will  be  extended  to  Canton,  forming  the 
great  north  and  south  trunk  road;  (4)  another  trunk  line  from 
Tientsin  to  Nanking,  parallcHng  the  Grand  Canal;  (5)  the 
Peking-Kalgan  line,  which  will  be  continued  to  Urga,  along  the 
ancient  caravan  trail. 

334.  Centers  of  Commerce  in  the  Chinese  Republic.  In 
the  absence  of  railways,  the  location  of  commercial  centers  was 
determined,  until  recent  years,  exclusively  by  the  water  ways 
and  caravan  routes;  consequently  only  the  river  ports  are  of 
first-class  importance. 

Canton,  the  largest  city  and  formerly  (until  1842)  the  only 
open  port,  is  still  the  chief  silk  market.  Tlie  three  rivers 
which  lead  into  the  interior  from  Canton  carry  a  heavy  traffic 
and  open  paths  for  future  railways.  Some  miles  below  tlie 
city,  however,  a  bar  with  only  sixteen  feet  of  water  over  it 
shuts  out  large  sea-going  vessels. 

From  Canton  to  the  Yangtse-kiang  the  harbors  are  good 
but  not  commercially  important.  Swatow,  Amoy,  and  Foo- 
chow.  indeed,  do  a  respectable  business,  but  they  are  cut  off 
from  the  interior  by  mountains  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast. 
This  section  is  largely  under  Japanese  influence  from  the 
near-by  i.sland  of  Taiwan,  long  known  as  Formosa. 

The  Yangtse-kiang  Valley  is  the  heart  of  China;  Shanghai 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Yangtse-kiang,  is  the  New  York  of 
China.  (Fig.  215.)  Even  goods  destined  for  northern  ports, 
like  most  of  the  American  exports,  are  trans-shipped  at 
Shanghai.  It  has,  however,  rather  shallow  water  (twenty  feet), 
being   situated   some   fourteen  miles   up   a    tributary  of  the 


THE   CHINESE    REPUBLIC 


319 


Yangtse-kiang  where  the  banks  are  less  swampy.  The  out-port. 
of  Wusung  is  therefore  growing  rapidly.  Another  important 
Yangtse-kiang  port  is  Hankow^  680  miles  from  the  sea  but 
accessible  to  seagoing  vessels,  and  situated  at  the  focus  of 
tributary  water  ways.  It  is  the  greatest  tea  market,  and  the 
second  city  of  China  in  population. 

In  the  north  commerce  centers  about  the  Gulf  of  Chihli, 
though  only  the  Shantung  and  Liautung  peninsulas  contain 
good  harbors.  Tientsin,  the  fourth  city  in  China,  is  the  river 
port  of  Peking.     By  virtue  of  its  position  near  the  head  of  the 


Fig.  215.     Native  part  of  the  water  front  at  Shanghai 


Gulf  of  Chihi,  Tientsin  has  become  a  center  of  commerce 
second  only  to  Shanghai,  notwithstanding  there  is  a  thirteen- 
foot  bar  at  the  river  mouth.  Peking  commands  the  rail  and 
caravan  route  through  Mongolia  to  Siberia  and  Europe  by  way 
of  the  Nankou  pass,^  Kalgan,  and  Urga;  and  also  the  route 
into   Manchuria  between   the   Great   Wall   and    the    sea    at 

'Other  Yangtse-kiangf  ports  are  Chinkiang,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
(irand  Canal;  Ichang,  1,050  m-iles  inhind  at  the  head  of  navagation  for 
large,  and  Chungking  (1,300  miles)  for  small  steamers.  Junk  traffic 
goes  still  higher  up  the  river. 

^xV  narrow  defile  barred  with  huge  gates  and  rising  from  4,000  feet  at 
Nankou  to   5,000  at   Kalgan- 


320  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Ninghai,  now  traversed  by  a  railway.  Harbin  is  a  new  railway 
center  in  Manchuria.  Newchwang^  on  the  navigable  Liau-ho 
(19  feet)  is  the  native  port  of  Manchuria;  though  foreign 
commerce  has  increasingly  shifted  to  the  ice-free  port  of 
Tairen  (Dalny),^  built  by  the  Russians  and  now  held  by 
the  Japanese.  In  like  manner  Chifu,  a  native  port  in 
Shantung  Peninsula,  has  been  largely  superseded  by  the 
port  of  Tsingtau,  built  by  the  Germans  and  connected  by  rail 
with  the  interior. 

335.  Merchant  Guilds  of  China.  Trade  in  China  is  con- 
trolled by  powerful  merchant  guilds.  These  enforce  so  rigid 
an  observance  of  contracts  by  members  that  a  Chinese  mer- 
chant's word  is  as  good  as  his  bond.  Such  a  reputation  is  one 
of  the  principal  assets  of  Chinese  merchants  in  the  Far  East. 
This  condition  is  the  exact  opposite  of  that  which  obtains  in 
Japan,  where  public  officials  are  usually  honest  but  the  mer- 
chants are  often  unreliable. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Chinese  merchant  guilds  mercilessly 
pursue  and  boycott  non-members.  No  foreign  house,  there- 
fore, can  hope  to  establish  itself  until  it  has  made  its  peace 
with  the  native  guilds.  This  means  the  employment  of 
Chinese  as  compradors  or  native  managers;  and  while  they 
live  up  to  the  letter  of  their  contracts,  they  one  and  all  pocket 
a  percentage — known  throughout  the  Orient  as  a  "squeeze" — 
on  all  the  business  they  transact.  In  many  cases,  the  compra- 
dor has  come  to  be  the  real  owner  of  the  business  and  tolerates 
the  presence  of  the  nominal  foreign  owners  merely  to  secure 
the  protection  of  foreign  consular  courts  against  the  black- 
mailing exactions  of  the  native  courts. 

336.  The  Commerce  of  China.  The  principal  exports  of 
China  are  silk,  tea,  cotton,  and  other  raw  materials;  while 
the  imports  are  largely  cotton  manufactures,  opium,  kerosene, 
and  foodstuffs,  especially  sugar,  rice,  and  fish.     (Fig.  216.) 

^Some  thirteen  miles  up  the  Liau-ho.  It  is  also  called  Yingtse  and 
Yinkow.  There  is  another  Newchwang, thirty  miles  up  the  river,  of  little 
commercial  importance. 

2  Renamed  Tairen  by  the  Japanese. 


THE  CHINESE  REPUBLIC 


321 


The  bulk  of  the  commerce  is  still  with  Great  Britain  and 
British  possessions;  though  before  the  World  War  many,  if 
not  a  majority,  of  the  mercantile  houses  were  German,  and  the 
German  Asiatic  Bank  of  Shanghai,  with  branches  in  other 
Asiatic  cities,  had  great  commercial  power. 

American  interests  in  the  Far  East  began  when  the  good 
ship  "Empress"  first  carried  the  American  flag  to  China  (1784) ; 
but  their  development  has  been  hindered  by  the  same  causes 
as  in  South  America  (§300).  The  Chinese  Republic,  rich  by 
nature  and  densely  peopled,  is  the  greatest  potential  market  in 
the  world;  and  the  United  States,  fronting  it  across  the  Pacific, 

18%  12%      9%   5%4%3%3%  46% 


Exports  by  articles 

Raw  silk 

15  mlllioo 

dollars 

Beans 

and 

beancake 

30 

Tea 
25 

ro 

1 
0 

3 

=  3 

£ 

All  others 

J18 

m 

18%                 U% 

n      8%        17% 

Imports  by  countries 

From  Hongkong 
99  million  dollars 

Japan 

58 

United 
Kingdom 

56 

India 
28 

■3  01 

All  others 
55 

Data  from  Commercial  Relations  of  U.S.,  1912 

Fig.    2 1 6.     Commerce    of   Chma.     Totals,    two-year  averages   {millions  of 

dollars):  exports,  255,  mostly  to  Hong-kong  {28%),  Japan  {13%), 

France,  and  United  Stales;  imports,  322,  the  largest  items  being 

cotton  goods,  rice,  flour,  and  fish,  railway  equipment,  opium, 

and  kerosene.     The  imports  from  Hong-kong 

are  chiefly  of  British  origin. 

is  nearer  by  sea,  and  for  this  reason  has  a  more  vital  interest 
there,  than  any  nation  of  Europe.  China  is,  moreover,  the 
greatest  consumer  of  cotton  goods,  while  the  United  States  is 
the  greatest  producer  of  cotton.  The  prosperity  of  the 
United  States  in  the  future  thus  largely  hinges  on  the  main- 
tenance in  China  of  the  "open  door" — that  is,  a  fair  field  and 
no  favors,  alike  for  all  competing  nations — and  on  the  ability 
of  American  merchants  to  hold  their  own  in  international 
competition. 

337.  Foreign  Possessions  in  China.  The  island  of  Macao 
at  the  mouth  of  Canton  River  was  early  granted  to  the 
Portuguese  (1586).  Having  a  harbor  too  shallow  for  modern 
vessels,  the  city  is  now  greatly  decayed.     It  once  had  the 


322  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

opium  trade  by  way  of  the  Si-kiang  River  from  the  po[)py 
region  of  Yunnan.     It  is  also  the  gambling  den  of  Asia. 

Hong-kong,  an  island  near  Canton,  was  ceded  much  later 
(1842)  to  the  English,  who  also  acquired  (1898)  a  lease  of  the 
adjoining  peninsula.  At  Hong-kong  is  a  splendid  harbor 
where  English  administration  has  created  from  nothing  in  half 
a  century  the  greatest  commercial  port  in  Asia,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  in  the  world.     (Fig.  217.)     It  is  an  absolutely 


■^ 

^'^ — 

I^^^O^^K 

mi^ 

^mmm^rmm 

gr  -r-te^-'^igi 

li^SSS^^ 

^^ 

m        -"^aS 

■dHt :     ii^'^lr^^l 

"iS3^J 

'""     »»*•''■• 

^•r.  _..^ 

m 

^^::-^..-  . 

^^'fh^'-r- 

Courtesy  of  JerremB*  Sobs 

Fig.  217.     Hong-kong  Harbor. 

free  port,  without  a  custom  house.  Through  it  passes  most 
of  the  commerce  of  southern  China,  Indo-China,  and  the 
Philippines.       (Fig.  291.) 

After  the  Chino- Japanese  War,  Germany  suddenly  landed 
sailors  and  seized  (1897)  Kiaochow  Bay,  alleging  as  a 
reason  the  murder  of-  two  German  missionaries.  A  lease  for 
ninety-nine  years  was  subsequently  obtained  of  a  small  dis- 
trict (208.4  square  miles)  around  the  bay,  together  with 
exclusive  railway  and  mining  rights  in  the  huge  province  of 
Shantung.  The  harbor  (Tsingtau  or  Chingtao)  is  deep, 
land-locked,  always  ice-free  and  now  connected  by  rail  (279.6 
miles)  with  the  city  of  Tsinan  on  the  Hwang-ho.  Tsingtau 
thus  has  decisive  advantages  over  Chifu,  and  indeed  over  all 
northern  ports.  It  lies,  moreover,  on  the  steamer  track  to 
the  Gulf  of  Chihli  or  Chosen.  The  Germans  consequently 
hoped  to  create  at  Tsingtau  a  mart  that  should  rival  Hong- 
kong. It  is  already  the  chief  market  for  straw-braid  wares, 
one  of  the  princi])al  native  manufactures. 


THE   CHINESE   REPUBLIC  323 

At  the  close  of  the  Chino-Japanese  War  (1895),  Russia  in 
conjunction  with  France  and  Germany  expelled  Japan  from 
Port  Arthur  in  order  to  "preserve  the  integrity  of  China." 
Russia  then  proceeded  to  obtain  possession  herself  of  Port 
Arthur  and,  in  effect,  of  all  Manchuria.  The  Japanese 
subsequently  recovered  Port  Arthur  by  force  of  arms  (1905), 
while  by  the  terms  of  peace  Manchuria  was  to  be  restored  to 
China.  Manchuria  was,  however,  practically  divided  between 
Japan  and  Russia,  the  latter  retaining  the  lion's  share. 

In  Kashgar,  moreover,  the  Russian  consul  with  his  guard 
of  Cossacks  was  the  real  power ; '  and  in  Mongolia  Russia  held  a 
mining  monopoly,  a  franchise  for  a  railway  from  Kiakhta  to 
Urga,  and  had  opened  at  Urga,  the  capital  of  Mongolia,  a 
branch  of  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank  guarded  by  Cossacks,  with 
Russian  forts  and  barracks.  Such  conditions  were  the  usual 
forerunners  of  annexation. 

In  order  to  offset  Port  Arthur  and  Kiaochow,  England 
secured  a  lease  (1898)  of  Weihaiwei,  a  naval  station  in  Shan- 
tung Peninsula.  France  at  the  same  time  obtained  a  lease  of 
Kwangchowwan  Bay  in  the  south,  and  a  cession  of  two  islands 
commanding  the  harbor. 

The  division  of  China  thus  appeared  to  be  well  under  way; 
but  it  was  checked  and  may  in  the  end  be  prevented  by  the 
open-door  policy  of  the  United  States.  Japan,  however, 
aspires  not  only  to  be  the  Schoolmaster  of  Asia,  but  also  to 
control  its  commerce. 

^*\mcrican  Geographical  Society  Bulletin,  Dec.    1905,  p.  705. 


XXIV— SOUTHERN  ASIA 

338.  Malaysia.  The  East  India  islands,  between  New 
Guinea  and  the  mainland  of  Asia,  are  equal  in  extent  to  Europe 
outside  of  Russia,  and  support  a  population  of  many  millions. 
All  this  mighty  colonial  domain,  except  the  Portuguese  end  of 
Timor,  the  British  part  of  Borneo,  and  the  Philippines,  belongs 
to  Holland.  The  inhabitants  are  Malays,  possibly  a  cross 
between  Hindus  and  Mongolians,  who  mostly  became  Moham- 
medans after  the  Arab  conquest  (1478).  Malaysia  includes 
also  the  Malay  Peninsula,  of  which  the  larger  part  is  British. 
The  soil  is  in  large  part  of  volcanic  origin,  abundantly 
watered  and  fertile. 

339.  Agricultural  Products  of  Malaysia.  Java,  containing 
fully  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
is  perhaps  most  widely  known  for  its  coffee.  This  is  grown 
at  medium  elevations  (2,000-5,000  feet).  In  recent  years, 
however,  coffee  has  lost  ground  in  favor  of  tea  and  cinchona 
(Fig.  218),  both  grown  at  higher  levels.  Java  also  ranks  high  in 

86% 6%    5f,  3% 


cS 

B 

: 

Java 

14,726  thousand  lbs. 

-dg 

^y 

t^ 

0 

02 

^ 

Dftta  from  ConBular  Reports,  Jun«,  1904 

Fig.  2 1 8.     World's  production  of  cinchona  bark. 
Total.    iy,io6  thousand  pounds. 

cane  sugar  (Fig.  278)  and  next  to  Bengal  as  a  source  of  indigo, 
both  being  lowland  crops.  Sumatra  is  especially  noted  for 
tobacco  and  pepper.  The  Moluccas  are  still,  as  they  were 
when  Columbus  set  sail  in  search  of  them,  and  chanced  upon 
America,  the  spice  islands;  though  the  spice  trade  has  relatively 
declined  in  modern  times,  owing  to  the  use  of  fresh  meat  and 
green  vegetables. 

In  addition,  many  of  the  islands,  as  well  as  the  Malay 

(324) 


SOUTHERN     ASIA  325 

Peninsula,  export  sago,  tapioca,  and  copra.  In  recent  years 
rubber  plantations,  mainly  of  Para  trees,  have  also  become 
important.    Buffalo, goat,  and  cattle  hides  are  largely  exported. 

340.  Other  Products  of  Malaysia.  Most  of  the  land,  even 
in  Java,  is  still  forested,  and  jungle  products  are  of  great  value. 
These  include  dammar  and  copal  resin,  used  in  varnishes; 
benzoin,  a  resin  burned  as  incense;  gutta-percha,  rattan,  tree 
cotton  (kapok),  a  tanning  extract  called  gambier,  and  the 
"edible. birds'  nests"  of  Borneo. 

The  sea  yields  pearls,  tortoise  shell,  and  trepang.  The 
mineral  resources  comprise  petroleum  and  coal,  especially  in 
Sumatra  and  Borneo;  also  the  principal  tin  deposits  in  the 
world,  extending  through  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Banka,  and 
Billiton.  (Fig.  219.)  Sumatra  oil  has  become  an  article  of 
481k 74%  8<s lef,  8%      6% 


Malay  States 
54  thousand  tons 

Dutch 

East 

Indies 

16 

other 

Asia 

9 

Bolivia 

18 

3 

2 
5 

i)»t«  from  Mineral  Pelourcel  of  U.  S-.  IWl    . 

Fig.  219.     World's  production  of  tin.     Total 
in  ipoy:  II J  thousand  short  tons. 

export.  Owing  to  the  neighboring  tin  deposits,  Singapore 
has  the  largest  tin  smelters  in  the  world,  and  many  canneries, 
especially  of  pineapples. 

341.  The  Commerce  of  Malaysia.  Mining  and  commerce 
are  mostly  carried  on  by  Chinese,  who  are  crowding  out  the 
less  energetic  natives,  especially  in  the  British  possessions, 
where  many  natives  of  Southern  India  also  settle. 

Java  is  traversed  by  a  trunk  line  railway,  with  various 
branches.  There  are  also  short  lines  in  Sumatra  and  a  trunk 
line  in  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

The  metropolis  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  is  Surabaya,  on  a 
fine  harbor  in  eastern  Java.  The  capital,  Batavia,  adjacent 
to  a  new  artificial  port  (Tanjong  Priok).  is  also  an  important 
commercial  city.  Singapore,  a  British  possession,  with  a 
harbor  of  ample  depth  commanding  the  gateway  connecting 
the  Indian  and  Pacific  oceans,  is  regularly  visited  by  some 


326 


COMMERCIA  L   GEOGRA  PH  Y 


fifty  lines  of  steamships.  Like  Hong-kong,  it  is  an  absolutely 
free  port,  without  a  custom  house;  and  it  is  the  greatest 
coaHng  and  transhipment  port  in  the  Far  East. 

As  the  exports  are  mainly  raw  materials  and  condiments, 
the  imports  are  naturally  manufactures  and  foodstuffs.  The 
share  of  the  United  States  in  the  commerce  of  the  East  Indies, 
both  Dutch  and  English,  is  insignificant  and,  aside,  from  the 
petroleum  trade,  it  consists  chiefly  of  American  purchases. 

342.  Indo-China.  Indo-China  is  aptly  named,  the  people 
being  of  Mongolian  origin,  while  their  rehgion  (Buddhism) 
and  civilization  came  from  India.  Only  Siam  remains  fur 
the  present  independent,  serving  as  a  buffer  state  between 
French  Indo-China^  and  Burma,  the  latter  now  a  part  of 
British  India. 

Siam  and  French  Indo-China  are  largely  rugged  and  forest - 
clad,  impenetrable  except  along  the  water  ways.  The  popu- 
lation is  therefore  mainly  settled  in  the  lower  river  valleys, 
where  the  soil  is  exuberantly  fertile,  but  the  damp  tropical 
climate  "repays  careful  avoidance"  by  Europeans. 

343.  Products  and  Commerce  of  Indo-China.  By  far  the 
most  important  commercial  crop  is  rice,  grown  on  the  deltas 
of  the  great  rivers.   (Fig.  220.)    Other  plantation  products  are 

4-1%  15%  19%  9%  16% 


Iiulia 
i,!>3.'{  million  lli^. 

Siam 

French  Indo- 
Cliina 
i.2.")5 

Malay 
I'en. 
UUO 

All  others 
1 .  P><"i 

l):ita  from  Voar  Booka  of  .Agriculture,  191-'-):! 

Fig.  220.     .Sources  of  rice  exports.      Total,  five-year 
average  {millions  of  pounds),  12,140. 

pepper  from  Siam,  and  tea  from  French   Indo-China.     Next 

to  rice,  liowever,  the  leading  export  is  teak  timber,  which  is 

proof  against  the  attacks  of  ants  and  marine  worms.     Minerals 

of  many  kinds  abound,  but  few  are  worked,  except  coal  along 

the  Songkoi  River.     There  are,  moreover,  a  number  of  rice 

and  lumber  mills. 

'Comprising  Cochin-China,  acquired    1S5Q,  Cambodia,    1803;  Tong- 
king,  1873  ;  Annam,  1883;  Laos,    1S93. 


SOUTHERN     ASIA  327 

Transportation  depends  in  general  on  the  rivers,^  though 
several  short  railways  are  open  and  others  are  projected.  The 
most  important  line  follows  the  Songkoi  to  the  Chinese 
frontier  and  now  extends  to  Yunnan.  This  is  part  of  a 
French  plan  for  the  commercial  conquest  of  southern  China. 

The  chief  commercial  centers  are  Haifong  on  the  Songkoi 
River;  Saigon  on  deep  water  connecting  with  the  Mekong 
in  the  French  possessions;  and  Bangkok  on  the  Menam,  in  Siam, 
which  is  largely  under  British  influence.  Hanoi,  the  capital 
of  French  Indo-China,  is  accessible  to  large  river  steamers. 

344.  India  and  Ceylon.  India  is,  like  China,  a  world  in 
itself,  containing  more  people  than  North  and  South  America, 
Australia,  and  all  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Yet  India  has 
no  unity  except  that  imposed  by  British  rule.  It  is,  in  fact, 
a  museum  of  races,  languages,  and  religions.  ^  Religious  wars 
have  filled  India  like  Java  with  splendid  and  melancholy 
ruins  of  past  greatness;  and  to-day  the  strong  hand  of  Great 
Britain  with  difficulty  restrains  the  mutual  hatred  of  Brahmins 
and  Mohammedans,  which  frequently  breaks  out  in  massacres 
of  one  another.  Should  England  retire,  therefore,  some  other 
strong  power  would  promptly  step  into  her  place. 

A  fourth  of  India  is  still  ruled  by  several  hundred  native 
chiefs  who  swear  allegiance  to  the  King  of  England — who 
is  also  Emperor  of  India — much  as  feudal  vassals  were  wont 
to  do  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

In  addition  to  the  feudatory  states,  Nepal,  Bhutdn,  and 
Baluchistan  are  British  protectorates  attached  to  India. 
Tibet,  nominally  Chinese,  is  virtually  a  British,  as  MongoHa  is 
a  Russian,  sphere  of  influence.  Ceylon,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
a  British  colony  independent  of  India. 

'The  Songkoi  is  navigable  beyond  the  Chinese  frontier;  the 
Mekong  to  Khong,  where  a  railway  goes  past  the  rapids;  and  the 
Menam  to  the  main  forks.  The  lowlands  are  also  traversed  by  a  net- 
work of  canals  These  largely  take  the  place  of  streets  in  Bangkok, 
the  ''Venice  of  the  East." 

'^Embracing  the  black,  white,  and  yellow  races;  upwards  of  a  hun- 
dred native  tongues,  and  six  religions  besides  Christianity,  that  count 
their  adherents  by  mjllions.  The  most  numerous  are  the  worshipers 
of  Brahma,  over  200,000,000;  and  the  Mohammedans,  over  60,000,000, 


328 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


345.  Surface  and  Climate  of  India  and  Ceylon.  India 
bears  some  resemblance  to  Italy,  having  a  great  plain  in  the 
north  and  a  mountainous  peninsula  toward  the  south.  Ceylon, 
moreover,  corresponds  in  position  to  Sicily,  but  contains  a 
core  of  very  lofty  mountains. 

The  temperature  varies  with  the  elevation,  from  the  deadly 
tropical  swamps  of  the  Ganges-Brahmaputra  delta  to  the 
Himalayas  (Abode  of  Snow). 

The  moisture  is  governed  by  the  winds.  In  winter  during 
the  northeast  trade,  some  rain  falls  on  the  east  coast  from 


Courfeij  of  the  Foreet  Serrioe 


Fig.  221      Elephants  hauling  teak  logs  in  Burma. 

Madras  south;  but  the  very  life  of  India  depends  upon  the 
southwest  monsoon,  generated  by  the  heat  of  the  continent  in 
summer.  The  rainfall  is  lieaviest  in  the  east,  uncertain  in 
the  center,  and  least  in  the  Indus  region,  on  account  of  Africa 
and  Arabia,  which  by  their  intense  heat  in  summer  break  the 
force  of  the  monsoon  blowing  toward  India.  Irrigation  is 
extensively  practiced,  especially  in  the  west  and  northwest. 

346.  Animal  Products  of  India  and  Ceylon.  Pearls  are 
found  in  the  shallow  waters  near  Ceylon.  Domestic  animals 
are  very  numerous,  including  buffaloes  for  plowing  and  ele- 
phants for  work  in  the  jungles  (Fig.  221) ;  but  all  the  native 


SOUTHERN    ASIA  329 

religions  except  Mohammedanism  taboo  the  eating  of  meat. 
Stock-raising  for  the  market  is  therefore  a  separate  business 
only  in  the  dry  Mohammedan  west.  Hides  and  wool,  how- 
ever, figure  among  the  exports. 

347.  Forests  of  India  and  Ceylon.  Valuable  timber  is 
plentiful  only  in  a  few  districts,  teak  (Fig.  221)  chiefly  in  Burma, 
deodar  (a  giant  cedar)  on  the  Himalayan  foothills,  and  in  the 
lee  of  the  western  Ghats,  where  also  are  found  sal  for  building 
and  sandalwood  for  furniture.  The  omnipresent  bamboo 
serves  all  purposes  among  the  natives.  The  forests  also  yield 
many  tanning  substances,  the  most  important  being  cutch 
(catechu)  and  myrobalans,  besides  wild  silk  and  gum-lac,  a 
substance  deposited  on  trees  by  insects.  From  this  substance 
shellac,  used  in  sealing  wax,  also  as  a  dye  and  in  finishing 
woodwork,   is   derived. 

348.  Cultivated  Products  of  India  and  Ceylon.  Tropical 
fruits  are  of  prime  importance  in  the  daily  life  of  the  people. 
The  cocoanut  on  the  coasts  and  islands,^  the  date  palm  in  the 
dry  west,  furnish  both  food  and  fibers.  Ceylon  also  exports 
large  quantities  of  cocoanuts,  copra,  cocoa  oil,  and  coir,  the 
fibrous  husk  of  the  cocoanut.  The  mango  and  the  plantain 
(banana)  are  the  main  support  of  the  peasants  in  many  districts 
between  harvests.  The  cereals  for  local  use  are  rice  in  Burma 
and  the  moist  east;  millet  in  the  dry  west. 

India  leads  the  world  in  the  production  of  jute,  of  which  it 
has  a  virtual  monopoly,  indigo,  and  oil  seeds — chiefly  linseed, 
rape,  sesame,  and  castor  beans.      India  also   leads  in  the 

59%  27%  8%       6% 


India  and  Ceylon 
Hi  million  lbs. 

China 
201 

Japan 

and 

Taiwan 

CO 

Is 

Data  from  Year  Book  of  Agriculture,  1912-13 

Fig.  222.    Sources  of  tea  exports.   Total,  five-year  average  (millions  of  lbs.),  748. 

export  of  tea  (Fig.  222),  grown  on  the  uplands   of  Ceylon 

and  the   Himalayas,  and  ranks  next  to  the    United  States 

'Ceylon  has  twice  as  much  land  in  cocoanuts  as  in  tea.  Cocoanuts 
are  also  the  chief  product  of  the  Andaman,  Nicobar,  Laccadive,  and 
Maldive  islands,  all  attached  to  the  government  of  India. 


330 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGKA I'H Y 


in  cotton.  (Fig.  84.)  Rubber  culture  has  also  taken  root 
in  Ceylon  as  in  Malaysia  on  the  lowlands.  Since  the  Russo- 
Japanese  war,  which  raised  the  price  of  camphor,  plantations 
()f  the  camphor  laurel  have  been  established  in  Ceylon, 
frequently  interplanted  with  tea.  There  is,  in  addition, 
a  considerable  export  of  wheat,  here  a  winter  crop,  from  the 
western  provinces.  (Fig.  43.)  In  the  extreme  south  some 
coffee  is  grown,  together  with  spices — cinnamon,  pepper, 
ginger,  and  nutmegs.  The  growing  of  poppies  for  the 
manufacture  of  opium  has  T)een  a  leading  industry,  but  the 
43%  36%  11%    5%  5% 


India 
(5;o  thousand  tons 

Russia 
573 

Brazil 

171 

a 

< 

Data  from  Mineral  Resources  of  U.S.,  )91.S 

Fig.  223.  .  World's  production  of  manganese  ore. 
Total  in  1911,  1,572  thousand  tons. 


72% 

n 

in 

n 

Ceylon 
2,6^2  thousand  dollars 

Unitea 

States 
294 

Austria 

All 
others 

Data  from  Mineral  Resources  of  U.S.,  1912-13 

Fig.  224.      Value  of  graphite  mined.     Total,  four- 
year  average,  j  ,649  thousand  dollars. 

government  of  China,  where  most  of  the  drug  is  marketed, 
has  recently  taken  a  strong  stand  against  the  opium  traffic, 
349.  Mineral  Products  of  India  and  Ceylon.  India  is  not, 
on  the  whole,  rich  in  minerals.  It  is,  however,  an  important 
producer  of  manganese  and  mica.  Since  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  indeed,  India  bids  fair  to  become  the  principal  source  of 
manganese.  (Fig.  223.)  Gold  is  also  mined  near  Mysore,  the 
works  being  run  by  electricity.  Burma  is  the  chief  source  of 
rubies,  now  more  costly  than  diamonds,  and  of  jade,  a  stone 
greatly  prized  by  the  Chinese.  Ceylon  is  the  source  of  mucli 
of  the  world's  graphite.  (Fig.  224.)  Mineral  fuels  are  also 
present,  petroleum  being  obtained  in  Burma  and  piped  to 
Rangoon,  while  coal  is  mined  near  Calcutta.  The  coal 
fields  are  large  but  most  of  the  coal  is  of  poor  quality  and  not 
adjacent  to  iron  or  limestone. 


SOUTHERN     ASIA  33 1 

350.  Manufactures  of  India  and  Ceylon.  The  traditional 
manufactures  are  hand-made  textiles  such  as  cashmere 
shawls,  and  handicraft  work  in  metal,  ivory,  and  leather. 


India 
1.2  million  bales 

Great 

Britain 

1.6 

U.S. 
.5 

5  -*■ 

All 
others 

.8 

Stta  furnlehed  bj  Bureau  of  Statittlol,  Dept  of  Africultun 

Fig.  225.     Jute  manufactures,  as  shown  by  constiinption  of  raw 

material.    Total  in  ipo§:  8,2j^,y26  bales  of  400  pounds,  all 

grown  in  India. 

Power  machinery  has  now  been  introduced  for  cotton  at 
Bombay,  jute  and  paper  at  Calcutta,  leather  at  Cawnpur,  and 
■  iron  in  Bengal.  In  fact  India,  having  the  raw  material  at 
hand  and  cheap  labor,  leads  in  jute  manufacture.  (Fig.  225.) 
There  is  even  some  export  trade  in  cotton  and  jute  goods, 
especially  of  coarse  cottons  to  China.  (Fig.  226.)  As  yet, 
however,  India  is  almost  exclusively  agricultural,  nearly  all 
the  people  (95  per  cent)  living  in  small  farming  villages. 

351.  Commerce  of  India  and  Ceylon.  Water  ways  are 
fairly  abundant.  "Mother  Ganges"  is  the  great  highw^ay  of 
Central  India,  being  easily  navigable  to  Cawnpur.  The 
Brahmaputra  is  used  to  Assam;  the  Irawadi  to  Bhamo  (800 
miles),  though  large  river  boats  stop  at  Mandalay.  The 
Indus,  however,  is  so  shifting  that  steamer  traffic  has  ceased, 
and  the  Deccan  rivers  are  broken  by  numerous  rapids. 

Land  transportation  has  been  revolutionized  since  the 
^lutiny  (1857),  in  part  for  military  reasons.  There  is  now  a 
network  of  excellent  wagon  roads  and  of  railways,  the  latter 
embracing  two-thirds  of  the  railway  mileage  in  Asia.  From 
the  railway  termini  caravan  routes  reach  Persia,  Afghanistan, 
southwestern  China,  and  also  tlie  broad  mountain  valleys  of 
Tibet,  since  the  Lhasa  expedition  (1904)  opened  that  country 
to  commerce. 

The  coast  is  deficient  in  harbors.  Calcutta,  the  metropolis, 
is  a  river  port  constantly  endangered  by  the  pace  and  volume 
of  the  Ganges;  Madras,  the  third  city  in  size,  and  Colombo  at 


332 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


the  crossroads  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  have  artificial  harbors. 
The  best  harbor  is  that  of  Bombay,  the  second  city,  which  is 
sheltered  by  islands.  Owing  to  its  position,  it  has  profited 
greatly  from  the  Suez  Canal.  Karachi,  a  new  port  near  the 
Indus,  is  the  outlet  of  the  Punjab,  as  Rangoon  on  the  Irdwadi 
is  of  Burma. 

Portugal  still  holds  Goa  and  other  stations  on  the  west, 
France  has  Pondichery  and  other  towns  chiefly  on  the  east 
coast — melancholy  relics  of  Indian  empires  that  have  passed 
away. 

352.  The  Plateau  of  Iran.  From  the  Indus  to  the  Tigris 
and  northward  to  the  Caspian  stretches  a  great  plateau, 
rimmed  with  moimtains,  and  mostly  arid  because  not  exposed  to 


Exports  by  articles. 


Imports  by  countries. 


m 

^H 

m 

W% 

9% 

T%  n 

6% 

4%4%     15% 

Raw 

cotton 

108  million 

dollars 

Rice 

84 

Oil 
seeds 

Jute 

(raw) 
72 

Jute 

(mfg.) 
66 

•0 1- 

Tea 
42 

'a 
0 

a    All  otiiera 
1?      107 

63%                                 6% 

3n 

From  Great.  Britain 
397  million  dollars 

1 

All  Others 

Statesman's  Year  Book,  1909-14 

Fig,   226.     Commerce   of   India.     Totals,  five-year  averages    {millions   oj 
dollars):  exports,  711,  largely  to  Great  Britain  (25%),  China,  and 
Germany;  imports,  472,  the  largest  items  being  cotton  goods, 
sugar,  iron  and  steel,  and  other  manufactures. 

the  full  force  of  the  southwest  monsoon.  This  plateau  contains 
Afghanistan,  Baluchistan,  and  Persia.  The  Persians  are  in 
part  of  Aryan  descent,  but  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Iranian  Plateau  are  related  to  the  Turks;  and  all  are  fiercely 
Mohammedan.  In  Persia,  however  (shades  of  Darius  and 
Xerxes!),  a  parliament  has  been  established  (1906)  in  imitation 
of  Japan.  The  Shah,  indeed,  soon  proceeded  to  cannonade  the 
parliament,  but  lost  his  throne  in  consequence. 

353.  Products  of  the  Iranian  Plateau.  Though  so  unprom- 
ising to  the  eye,  most  of  the  plateau  furnishes  pasturage 
for  camels,  sheep,  and  goats.  The  pastoral  exports  comprise 
wool,  hides,  and  lamb  skins,  the  last  named  valued  as  furs. 


SOUTHERN    ASIA 


333 


Moreover,  the  irrigated  districts  in  the  valleys  and  along  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  are  highly  productive,  like  the  lovely 
vale  of  Shiraz,  renowned  in  Persian  poetry  for  roses  and  wine 
and  nightingales.  The  agricultural  exports  embrace  dried 
fruits  and  nuts  (chiefly  raisins,  almonds,  pistachios),  raw 
cotton  and  silk,  opium,  rice,'  and  gums,  especially  assafoetida. 
The  latter  is  a  villainous-smelling  substance  used  in  medicines, 
and  also  eaten  in  India.  Recently  fresh  fruits  have  begun  to 
be  exported  from  Baluchistan  to  India,  daily  fruit  trains 
leaving  from  Quetta  during  the  season. 

Other  commercial  products  are   pearls  from    the   Persian 


Fig.  227.     Persian  traders  with  pack  camels. 

Gulf,  sturgeon  from  the  Caspian  rivers,  and  the  finest  tur- 
quoises from  Nishapur.  The  other  mineral  resources,  though 
rich  and  varied,  are  undeveloped.  The  native  wool  and  silk, 
however,  are  extensively  woven  into  rugs  on  hand  looms  and 
dyed  with  native  vegetable  dyes.^ 

iRice  is  the  principal  cereal,  growing  up  to  4,000  feet  in  this  lati- 
tude, while  cotton  matures  up  to  6,500  feet,  and  wheat  and  barley  to 
9,000  feet. 

2  Mainly  indigo,  madder,  safflower,  and  senna,  which  are  believed 
to  fade  much  less  than  aniline  dyes.  Some  senna  is  exported.  The 
centers  of  rug  manufacture  in  Persia  are  Tabriz,  Sultanabad,  and 
Meshed.  Brocades  are  also  made  at  Tabriz,  shawls  at  Kerman,  woolen 
felts  at  Ispahan. 


334  CUMMERCIAi.   GEOGRAPHY 

These  oriental  rugs  are  exported  chiefly  to  the  United  States. 
The  imports,  both  of  Afghanistan  and  Persia,  are  mainly 
cotton  goods  and  other  manufactures,  besides  sugar  and  tea. 
The  bulk  of  the  imports  are  supplied  by  Great  Britain,  the 
Persian  Government  now  being  under  British  control. 

354.  Trade  Routes  of  the  Iranian  Plateau.  Wagon  roads 
now  extend  from  the  Russian  frontier  well  into  Persia,  and  from 
India  to  Kabul  and  Kandahar.  (Fig.  227.)  Most  of  the  trade 
vvath  India  goes  by  the  Quetta  Railway  or  else  by  caravan 
through  the  historic  Khaibar  Pass,  which  has  echoed  to  every 
invasion  of  India  by  land  except  that  of  Alexander  the  Great.  ^ 
Other  trade  routes  begin  at  Trebizond  and  various  ports 
on  the  Tigris  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  ^ 

C  Afghanistan  is  in  form,  and  Persia  in  fact,  a  buffer  state 
between  the  British  and  the  Russian  possessions  in  Asia. 
Afghanistan  has  no  relations  wdth  other  nations  except  through 
Great  Britain.  In  Persia,  the  northern  two-thirds  were  recog- 
nized as  within  the  Russian,  and  the  southern  part  as  within 
the  British,  sphere  of  influence,  while  the  center  was  a  neutral 
zone.  The  northern  zone  was  partly  occupied  by  Russian 
troops,  and  Russian  settlers  were  pouring  in  by  thousands. 
Russian  influences  had  also  expelled  an  American  director 
of  public  finance,  who  had  been  called  in  by  Persia  and  who 
threatened  to  put  Persia  in  a  position  to  oppose  Russian 
aggression. 

International  rivalry  has  hitherto  blocked  the  construction 
of  through  railroads,  though  a  Russo-Indian  railroad  is  a 
possibility  of  the  future.  Except  for  political  complications, 
the  best  route  for  an  Indo-European  railway  would  seem  to  be 
through  Khaibar  Pass  and  the  great  valley  of  Herat,  "whose 
history  is  the  history  of  Central  Asia." 

•.Another  Indo-Pcrsian  trade  route  starts  from  Xushki,  beyond  Quetta, 
whieh  was  reached  by  the  railway  in  1906. 

-Busliire,  Bender  Abbas,  and  Lingah,  all  exposed  roadsteads,  on  the 
Persian  Gulf;  liagdad  and  Mohatnmera,  where  lateral  valleys  open  from 
the  east,  on  the  Tigris. 


XXV— WESTERN  AStA 

"Where  the  Turks  are,  there  also  are  the  wolves." 
"Where  the  Turk's  horse  treads,  no  grass  grows." 

— Popular  Proverbs. 

355.  Why  Western  Asia  is  of  Special  Interest.  In  Turkey, 
far  more  clearly  than  in  China,  a  religion  and  a  civilization  have 
been  weighed  in  the  balance  and  found  wanting. 

The  region  between  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the 
Mediterranean,  more  than  any  other  in  the  world,  is  historic 
ground,  sown  with  ruins  that  impress  even  the  most  careless 
beholder.  Here  rose  and  fell  mighty  empires  whose  trade  sup- 
ported the  princely  commercial  cities  of  Phoenicia  and  Meso- 
potamia. Here  and  in  Egypt  were  developed  the  practical 
arts  which  still  form  the  basis  of  our  civilization. 

Moreover  from  the  days  when,  according  to  Homer,  Hector 
and  Achilles  fought  beneath  the  walls  of  Troy,  western  Asia 
has  been  the  theater  of  a  never-ending  conflict  between  the 
East  and  the  West.  Conquered  by  Alexander,  ruled  for  cen- 
turies by  Rome,  and  Christianized  as  far  east  as  the  Tigris,  this 
region  was  finally  overrun  by  horde  after  horde  of  nomads — 
Arabs  (A.  D.  635),  Turks  (107 1),  Mongols,  and  Tartars — who 
destroyed  villages  and  cities,  rendering  agriculture  impossible 
in  order  that  their  flocks  might  have  pasturage.  So  thorougli 
was  their  work  of  destruction  that  only  in  the  islands  and  in 
the  mountainous  districts,  such  as  Lebanon  and  Armenia,  do 
the  native  Christians  still  predominate. 

356.  The  Decay  of  Islam.  To-day,  however,  European 
civilization,  armed  with  steam  and  electricity  and  mail-clad 
fleets  that  replace  the  mail-clad  warriors  of  crusading  days,  is 
mighty,  while  Mohammedan  Asia  is  weak.  Only  the  inability 
of  European  nations  to  agree  so  long  suffered  the  Turk  to  deso- 
late and  pollute  with  robbery  and  murder  one  of  the  fairest 
lands  in  the  world;  only  the  successor  of  the  Turk  remains  to 

be  chosen. 

(33s) 


33^  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

Seeing  the  handwriting  on  the  wall  which  foretold  the  doom 
of  Turkey  unless  regenerated,  and  inspired  by  Japan's  example, 
a  reform  party  among  the  Turkish  army  officers  indeed  forced 
the  Sultan  (Abdul  Hamid  II)  to  proclaim  a  constitution  (1908), 
and  then  dethroned  him.  But  if  there  is  no  god  but  Allah — 
and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet — and  the  Sultan  is  his  Vice 
Regent  on  Earth,  what  place  is  there  for  a  Parliament  in  any 
Mohammedan  country? 

357.  Arabia.  Arabia  is  a  third  the  size  of  the  United  States. 
Though  usually  conceived  as  a  sea  of  sand,  the  center  of  Arabia 
is  occupied  by  a  plateau  (the  Nejd,  5,000  feet  elevation)  "with 
long,  undulating  slopes  covered  with  pasture,  and  deep,  narrow 
valleys  in  which  lie  irrigated  gardens  and  plantations."  This 
plateau  is  the  true  home  of  the  Arabs,  whence  they  spread  as 
far  as  Spain  and  Java,  destroying  and  founding  empires.  In 
the  Nejd  they  maintained  their  independence  of  the  Turk, 
who  ruled  the  Red  Sea  coast.  The  Nejd  is  likewise  the  home 
of  the  peerless  Arabian  horse  and  the  camel,  which  have  been 
no  mean  factors  in  the  spread  of  Arabian  dominion. 

358.  Products  of  Arabia.  The  coast  of  Arabia  is  rimmed 
with  lofty  mountains^  which  condense  the  moisture  of  the 
winds  passing  over  them  into  heavy  rains  and  even 
snows,  especially  in  the  southwest — the  Arabia  Felix  or 
Araby  the  Fortunate  of  the  ancients.  This  region  exports 
Mocha  coffee,  grown  on  the  terraced  and  irrigated  moun- 
tain slopes,  besides  sheep  and  goatskins.  The  shipping 
ports  are  Aden  and  Hodaida,  whence  a  railway  has  been  sur- 
veyed inland  to  the  important  city  of  Sana. 2  The  Hadramut 
Valley  in  the  south  is  famous  for  fragrant  resins  which  are 
burned  as  incense  (m3^rrh,  frankincense).  These  were  among 
the  earliest  and  most  valuable  articles  of  commerce.  Oman 
in  the  southeast,  independent  of  Turkey  but  a  virtual  British 

'Exceeding  10,000  feet  in  places.  An  elevation  of  10,000  feet  in 
latitude  15°  gives  an  average  temperature  like  that  of  St.  Paul, 
Minn.,  in  latitude  45°. 

'About  200  miles  inland,  at  an  elevation  of  7,500  feet  which  gives 
a  temperate  climate. 


WESTERN     ASIA  337 

protectorate,    produces   dates   for  export;   and   the   Bahrein 
Islands,  a  British  possession,  have  important  pearl  beds. 

359.  The  Commerce  of  Arabia.  The  Arabs  with  their 
"ships  of  the  desert"  early  became  great  caravan  traders. 
They  were  also  early  driven  by  their  location  and  necessities 
to  fare  in  ships  across  the  sea.  Since  prehistoric  times  they 
have  had  close  relations  with  eastern  Africa  to  the  Zambezi, 
and  southern  Asia  to  Java.  Before  the  discovery  of  the  Cape 
route  to  India,  they  entirely  controlled  the  commerce  of  the 
Indian  Ocean. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the  ports  of  Maskat 
and  Aden  have  again  become  distributing  points  for  the 
commerce  of  the  adjacent  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Aden,' 
situated  on  a  splendid  crater  harbor,  the  best  within  a  radius 
of  a  thousand  miles,  is  a  fortified  British  coaling  and  naval 
station,  commanding  the  approach  to  the  Suez  Canal. 

Mecca,  where  Mohammed  was  born,  is  the  center  of  the 
Mohammedan  world,  which  each  devout  believer  faces  at 
prayer  and  is  bidden  to  visit  at  least  once  during  his  lifetime. 
These  pilgrimages  have  given  rise  to  a  great  fair  at  Mecca,  like 
those  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages.  A  railway  has  been  sur- 
veyed between  Mecca  and  its  port  of  Jedda,  and  another  has 
been  constructed  from  Damascus  through  Medina  on  the  way 
to  Mecca. 

The  exports  of  Arabia  are  chiefly  coffee,  hides,  dates,  and 
fragrant  resins;  the  imports  are  cotton  goods  and  other 
manufactures.  Curiously  enough,  and  for  no  apparent  reason 
except  the  preference  of  the  natives,  American  cotton  goods, 
which  do  not  compete  successfully  with  British  cottons  in 
Mexico  or  South  America,  are  extensively  sold  at  Aden  for  use 
in  Arabia  and  Africa. 

360.  Asiatic  Turkey.  Turkey-in-Asia  embraces  three 
natural  divisions,  exclusive  of  Arabia. 

Along  the  Mediterranean  is  a  narrow  plain,  backed  by  a  belt 
of  hills  culminating  in  the  twin  mountain  ranges  of  Lebanon 
and  Anti-Lebanon.     Between  these  ranges  runs  a  remarkable 


338 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


"rift  valley,"  caused  by  a  great  fracture  of  the  earth's  crust, 
which  is  occupied  by  the  Jordan,  the  Dead  Sea,  and  farther 
south  by  the  Red  Sea.   This  coastal  region  is  Syria.    (Fig.  228.) 

East  of  the  coastal  region  is  a  broken  plateau  averaging 
2,000  feet  elevation,  and  sloping  eastward  into  a  lowland 
which  is  traversed  by  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  rivers.  This 
' lowland  is  Mesopotamia.     (Fig.  228.) 

Toward  the  north  is  a  broad  and  lofty  plateau  (3,000-8,000 
feet   high),   edged   with   loftier  mountains.     This   plateau   is 


2S0  Statute  Miles  I 

Railwajfl 

Railways  building  ur  projected  . 


Fig.  228.     Syria  and  Mesopotamia. 

Anatolia  or  Asia  Minor.  (Fig.  201.)  Toward  the  east  it  con- 
nects with  the  Plateau  of  Iran.  It  was  by  this  plateau  route, 
which  offered  an  unobstructed  passage  for  their  flocks,  that 
the  Turks  and  other  nomads  came  from  central  Asia. 

In  latitude  and  climate,  &}'ria  corresponds  to  southern 
California,  Mesopotamia  to  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  Ana- 
tolia to  northern  California  and  the  great  plateau  stretching 
eastward  a  thousand  miles  to  Colorado.  Asiatic  Turkey, 
excluding  Arabia,  was  about  half  the  size  of  the  United  States 
west  of  the  Dakotas. 


WESTERN    ASIA  -  3^9 

The  prevailing  language  is  Arabic  south,  and  Turkish  north, 
of  the  Orontes,  though  Armenian  is  spoken  in  parts  of  the 
northeastern  mountains,  and  Greek  in  Cyprus  and  the  other 
Turkish  islands  as  well  as  along  the  coast  of  the  ^gean.  Since 
the  Crusades,  however,  the  language  of  intercourse  with  for- 
eigners has  been  French  or  the  mongrel  dialect  called  Lingua 
Franca. 

361 .  Stock  and  Forest  Products.  The  wealth  of  Tiu-key  was 
largely  in  its  flocks,  especially  sheep  eastward  of  the  Jordan 
where  the  shepherds  of  old  "watched  their  flocks  by  night." 
Angora  goats  abotmded  on  the  lofty  plateau  of  Anatolia. 
The  fleece  of  these  goats,  called  mohair,  is  longer  and  whiter 
than  wool.  The  principal  beast  of  biu"den  was  the  camel. 
Wool,  mohair,  and  hides  were  collectively  the  largest  export. 

Forests  occur  on  the  seaward  mountain  slopes,  especially 
along  the  Black  Sea,  but  only  in  remote  districts,  as  the  forests 
have  been  largely  destroyed  to  furnish  firewood  and  charcoal. 
The  exported  forest  products  embrace  the  acorn  cups  of  the 
valonia  oak,  and  galls  or  excrescences  from  another  kind  of 
oak,  both  used  for  tanning;  gum  tragacanth,  used  in  caHco 
printing;  and  mastic,  a  gum  used  for  chewing.  The  licorice 
plane  also  grows  wild,  and  the  roots  are  largely  exported  to  the 
United  States. 

362.  The  Need  of  Irrigation.  In  this  region  by  reason 
of  the  siunmer  drought,  which  increases  in  severity  in  the  sub- 
tropical zone  toward  the  south  (§190),  as  in  California,  agri- 
culture as  a  rule  depends  on  irrigation.  This  fact  goes  far 
to  explain  the  striking  vicissitudes  of  fortune  which  western 
Asia  has  experienced;  for  if  the  artificial  water  supply  be 
interrupted  even  for  a.  year,  the  sands  of  the  desert  hasten 
to  reclaim  their  own.  Thus  the  hill  country  of  Palestine, 
which  the  Hebrews  found  "flowing  with  milk  and  honey," 
and  where  every  man  could  sit  "under  his  own  vine  and  fig 
tree,"  is  now  but  a  wilderness  of  barren  rocks,  the  soil  hav- 
ing been  washed  away  after  the  forests  were  destroyed.  And 
the  words  of  the  prophet  who  foretold  that  Babylon  should 


34'^  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

become  a  den  of  wild  beasts  have  been  literally  fulfilled;  for 
the  irrigation  system  ha^4ng  gone  to  ruin,  the  floods  of  winter 
have  turned  vast  tracts  of  Mesopotamia  into  a  fever-breeding 
marsh,  dotted  by  low  mounds  marking  the  sites  of  splendid 
cities,  while  beyond  the  marsh  all  is  desert. 

363.  Farm  Products.  Cereals,  consisting  chiefly  of  barley 
and  wheat,  are  grown  in  the  plains  region  of  Syria  along  the 
vsea;^  also,  between  the  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  in  the  edge  of 
the  Hauran  plateau  east  of  the  Jordan;  likewise  in  the  moister 
parts  of  the  Anatolian  plateau,  especially  around  Sivas. 
Barley  is  an  article  of  export,  but  the  wheat  crop  is  insuffi- 
cient for  domestic  use.  The  staple  commercial  products  are 
raw  silk,  subtropical  fruits,  opium,  tobacco,  and  cotton.  The 
Beirut  and  Brusa  districts  are  especially  noted  for  silk, 
Mesopotamia  for  dates,  Jafifa  for  oranges  and  lemons,  Haifa 
for  olives,  Latakia  and  Samsun  for  tobacco,  Smyrna  for 
opium,  raisin  grapes,  and  figs,  Cyprus  for  carobs.  These  are 
pods  growing  on  trees  and  said  to  be  the  "locusts"  on  which 
vSt.  John  subsisted  in  the  wilderness. 

In  recent  years  (since  1902)  American  machinery  has 
invaded  these  ancient  lands,  where  grain  through  all  the 
ages  had  been  reaped  by  hand  and  threshed  by  oxen  driven 
around  in  a  circle.  (Fig.  95.)  The  first  reaper  created  the 
greatest  sensation  since  Mohammed  preached  his  new  religion, 
and  nearly  caused  a  riot  among  the  Arabs,  who  complained 
that  it  left  nothing  for  them  to  glean.  Threshers,  steam 
])lows,  and  oil  motors  for  irrigation  purposes  have  also  made 
their  appearance  on  a  few  great  estates. 

364.  Other  Products.  In  the  islands,^  which  were  nomi- 
nally Turkish,  sponge  fishing  was  the  leading  industry.  Almost 
the  entire  population  of  the  smaller  islands  follows  the  sea  as 
sailors  or  fishermen. 

1  Including  the  historic  plains  of  Esdraclon,  Sharon,  and  Philistia. 

2  Cyprus,  "administered"  since  1878  by  Great  Britain,  was  formally 
annexed  in  19 14.  Rhodes  and  eleven  other  islands,  seized  during  the 
Turko-Italian  War  (191 1),  are  still  held  by  Italy.  .\\\  of  these  are  Greek 
in  po])ulation  and  Christian  in  religion. 


WESTERN  ASIA  341 

The  mineral  resources  are  rich  and  varied  but  largely  unde- 
veloped, as  in  Persia.  Thus,  extensive  oil  fields  have  been 
located  in  Mesopotamia,^  and  coal,  adjacent  to  iron,  underlies 
parts  of  the  Anatolian  plateau.  The  minerals  actually  mined 
are  asphaltum  on  the  Jordan,  copper  and  silver  near  Kharput, 
chromium,  antimony,  and  emery  in  the  Smyrna  district. 
Turkey  is  the  largest  producer  of  chromium  ore. 

The  manufactures  are  principally  hand-made  textiles, 
leather,  and  copper  goods.  The  industrial  center  for  these  is 
Damascus,  located  where  the  Barada,  after  cutting  a  gorge 
through  the  Anti-Lebanon  range,  irrigates  a  valley  of  sur- 
passing fertility.  Beirut  and  Brusa  carry  on  the  silk  industry 
in  primitive  fashion.  Smyrna  is  noted  for  rugs  and  carpets, 
though  Turkish  and  Kurdish  rugs,  being  now  dyed  with 
aniline  colors,  are  not  in  good  repute.  The  "Smyrna"  rugs 
sold  in  the  United  States,  however,  are  mostly  made  in 
Philadelphia. 

365.  Commerce.  Asiatic  Turkey  exported  chiefly  raw 
materials,  besides  fruits  and  rugs,  and  imported  mainly  cot- 
ton and  woolen  manufactures,  together  v^dth  foodstuffs  such 
as  sugar,  wheat,  and  rice. 
,  The;  present  commerce  of  the  country  is,  ho\vever,  no  meas- 
ure of  its  resources.  The  geographic  conditions  that  made 
possible  in  this  region  such  prosperous  nations  in  ancient 
times  have  not  ceased  to  exist.  For  example,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  Mesopotamia,  where  wheat  was  probably  native, 
would  again  become  under  European  control  one  of  the  gran- 
aries of  the  world.  It  is  the  human  factor  here,  as  throughout 
the  Orient,  that  limits  commerce.  The  greatest  enemy  of 
Turkish  commerce  is  the  Turk. 

Moreover,  western  Asia  formed  in  ancient  times  the  great 
"highway  of  nations" ;  and  through  its  gateways,  once  railways 
are  built,  there  will  again  pour  the  commerce  of  two  continents. 

'The  ancient  Greek  legend  of  the  Chimsera,  a  fire-breathing  mon- 
ster, seems  to  have  originated  from  a  column  of  burning  natural  gas 
i>n  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  north  oi  Cape  Khclidonia.  C^Iineral  Indvis- 
try,  1902.) 


342  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Already  the  Bagdad  Railway  is  advancing  from  the  west, 
"scattering  before  it  the  Arabian  locusts  which  have  so  long 
held  possession  of  these  plains." 

366.  Trade  Routes  of  Western  Asia.  Commercial  centers 
in  Mesopotamia  have  always  arisen  opposite  passes  in  the 
Persian  mountains. 

The  gorge  of  the  Diala,  the  famous  "Median  Gate"  to  Persia, 
determined  the  location  of  ancient  Babylon  and  a  whole 
dynasty  of  great  cities — Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  Bagdad — in  suc- 
cessive ages.  (Fig.  3.)  Thence  the  shortest  overland  route  to  the 
Mediterranean  leads  through  the  edge  of  the  Syrian  desert  by 
way  of  Damascus  to  Beirut  or  Haifa,  on  artificial  harbors  not 
far  from  the  sites  of  ancient  Tyre  and  Sidon.  From  Damascus 
a  narrow  gauge  cog  railway  goes  over  the  Lebanon  range 
(5,200  feet)  to  Beirut,  and  a  standard  gauge  railway,  longer 
but  with  easier  grades,  reaches  Haifa  through  Yarmuk 
Valley  and  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  which  has  been  trodden  by 
caravans  and  armies  in  all  ages.^  Northward  from  Damascus, 
another  line  traverses  the  plain  to  Aleppo;  while  southward 
the  railway  toward  Mecca  was  built  by  the  Sultan  to  carry 
the  pilgrim  traffic  and  insure  to  himself  a  firmer  grip  on  the 
headship  of  the  Mohammedan  world.  Damascus,  the  oldest 
existing  city  in  the  world,  has  thus  become  the  railway  center 
of  modem  Syria. 

The  valley  of  the  Zab  Ala  likewise  determined  the  location 
o."  ancient  Nineveh  and  modern  Mosul,  which  occupies  almost 
the  same  site.  Thence  another  trade  route,  in  use  for  ages, 
runs  westward  through  Aleppo,  the  Damascus  of  the  North, 
and  the  Orontes  Valley,  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  modern 
port  of  this  region  is  Alexandretta,  having  the  only  good 
natural  harbor  in  Syria,  and  easily  accessible  from  the  interior 
through  the  defile  called  the  Syrian  Gates.     Alexandretta  has 

'Along  the  River  Kishon.  The  Litani  (Leontes)  Valley,  nearly 
opposite  the  Barada  Gorge,  was  used  by  ancient  Tyre  and  Sidon  to 
avoid  the  climb  over  Lebanon ;  but  the  coast  near  the  Litani  is  now 
harborless.  Haifa  and  Acre  are  on  the  same  bay,  sheltered  toward  the 
south  by  Mount  Carmel. 


WESTERN    ASIA  343 

therefore  an  excellent  site  for  commerce,  whenever  railways 
shall  restore  overland  trade  to  its  former  importance. 

These  two  caravan  routes — the  one  through  Damascus, 
Bagdad,  and  southern  Persia,  the  other  through  Alexandretta, 
Mosul,  Teheran,  Herat,  and  Kabul  —  mark  the  natural  routes 
for  a  "Southern  Pacific"  and  a  "Central  Pacific"  to  India 
and  China,  which  must  some  day  parallel  the  "Northern 
Pacific,"  already  built  by  Russia  across  Siberia. 

The  principal  commercial  ports  in  Asia  Minor  are  Trebizond 
and  Samsun  on  the  Black  Sea;  and  Smyrna,  having  the  best 
natural  harbor  on  the  ^Egcan.  Smyrna  has  now  three  rail- 
way's inland,  one  connecting  it  with  the  Bagdad  line.  This 
railway,  begun  by  Germany,  starts  on  the  Bosporus  opposite 
Constantinople,  at  the  new  port  of  Haidar  Pasha,  where  a 
car  ferry  lands  trains  from  Europe  without  change  of  passen- 
gers or  freight.  The  southern  or  main  hnc  of  the  Bagdad 
Railway,  descends  from  the  plateau^  near  Adana,  rounds  the 
head  of  the  Iskandcrun  Gulf  to  Alexandretta  and  reaches 
the  Euphrates  at  Jerablus;  and  is  completed  to  Busra,  except 
for  the  Mosul  section  between  Nisibin  and  Samara.  From 
Jerablus  (ancient  Carchcmish)  near  the  head  of  light  draft 
na\igation  on  the  Euphrates,  the  Bagdad  road  traverses  the 
fertile  belt  along  the  foot  of  the  plateau  to  Nisibin,  and  follows 
the  Tigris  through  Bagdad  and  Busra,  the  head  of  navigation 
for  .small  sea-going  vessels,  toward  a  deep-water  port  on  the 
Persian  Gulf,  where  a  great  commercial  city  is  destined  to 
arise. 

'Through  the  Cilician  Gates,  elevation  3,500  feet,  a  defile  famous  in 
liistorv. 


XXVI— AFRICA 

367.  The  Right  of  Conquest.  Nations  come  and  go  like 
leaves  on  the  forest  trees;  the  earth  remains. 

It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  no  nation  can  have  a  per- 
petual title-deed  to  any  part  of  the  earth.  It  belongs  to  man- 
kind. At  all  events,  few  will  seriously  maintain  that  the  rest 
of  the  human  race  must  forever  be  denied  access  to  the 
riches  of  a  land  because  the  inhabitants,  perhaps  a  few  naked 
savages  whom  chance  has  placed  there,  will  neither  develop 
the  resourcesof  the  country  themselves  nor  suffer  others  so  to  do. 

The  European  conquest  and  partition  of  Africa,  though  far 
from  justifiable  in  many  of  its  methods  and  incidents,  is 
therefore  on  the  whole  a  justifiable  process,  carrying  light 
into  dark  places  and  placing  immense  natural  resources  at  the 
disposal  of  mankind. 

368.  The  Inhabitants  of  Africa.  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara 
was  the  original  seat  of  the  negro  race.  In  the  region  north  of 
the  Sahara  the  first  inhabitants  (Berbers)  were  of  Caucasian 
stock;  later  came  the  Arabs  (A.  D.  640)  who  were  also  originally 
Caucasians.  But  the  slave  trade  has  introduced  so  much 
negro  blood  along  the  Mediterranean  that  Shakspere  was 
right  in  representing  the  Moor  Othello  as  colored. 

The  pastoral  Arabs,  at  home  in  the  desert,  have  now  estab- 
lished the  faith  of  Mohammed  over  all  the  grass-bearing 
plateau  as  far  as  Zanzibar  in  the  east,  and  almost  to  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  in  the  west,  stopping  only  at  the  edge  of  the  steaming, 
forested  lowlands. 

The  map  of  Africa  to-day  resembles  that  of  America  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  showing  the  same  patchwork  of  colonies 
without  natural  boundaries.  (Fig.  230.)  These  colonies  are 
mostly  the  children  of  accident  and  diplomacy,  incapable  of 
withstanding  the  first  shock  of  arms. 

(344) 


344 


a 


m 


Fig.  232.     The  "shaduf",  a  method  of  irrigation 
used  in  Egypt  since  the  early  Pharaohs. 


346  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

369.  The  Continent  of  Africa.  Africa,  though  no  longer 
a  land  of  fable  and  mystery,  is  still  the  "Dark  Continent" 
in  point  of  civilization,  because  the  least  accessible  and  the 
most  tropical.' 

It  has  proportionately  the  least  coast  line;  and  being  for 
the  most  part  an  elevated  plateau,  the  rivers  are  nearly  all 
broken  a  short  distance  inland,  where  they  plunge  over  the 
edge  of  the  plateau.     This  has  hindered  navigation. 

Africa  is  the  most  characteristically  tropical  because  the 
equator  crosses  almost  the  center  of  the  continent.  Africa 
alone  thus  has  a  complete  series  of  climatic  belts,  from  North 
Temperate  to  South  Temperate  (§48). 

As  in  South  America,  however,  the  great  elevation  of  the 
plateau  above  sea  level  carries  a  fairly  temperate  climate  far 
within  the  Tropics ;  especially  along  the  backbone  of  the  conti- 
nent, extending  from  Abyssinia  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

370.  Natural  Resources  of  Egypt.  Egypt  is,  in  the  words 
of  Herodotus,  "the  gift  of  the  Nile."  The  river,  swollen  by 
summer  rains  in  equatorial  Africa,  both  waters  and  fertilizes 
its  valley,  stretching  like  a  narrow  ribbon  of  green  through 
the  wide,  thirsty  desert.  For  this  reason  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians worshiped  the  life-giving  river  as  a  god. 

The  resources  of  Egypt  are  thus  almost  exclusively  agri- 
cultural. Land  flooded  by  the  river  bears  one  crop,  land 
diked  and  perennially  irrigated  (Fig.  232)  bears  three  crops  a 
year:  in  autumn,  maize  and  millet;  in  winter,  wheat,  barley, 
beans,  and  clover;  in  summer,  cotton  and  rice  in  the  delta, 
sugar  cane  and  dates  in  the  valley,  with  figs  in  the  Fayum, 
an  old  lake  basin.  Cotton,  having  a  long  fiber  resembling 
Sea  Island,  is  far  and  away  the  principal  export. 

On  the  upper  Nile,  from  Berber  south,  there  are  forests, 
due  to  the  heavier  rainfall  nearer  the  equator.  These  forests 
yield  various  gums,  especially  gum  arable,  used  in  mucilage. 
This  has,  however,  been  partly  supplanted  by  an  artificial 
gum  (dextrine).  There  is  evidence  that  the  ancient  Egyptians 
obtained  gold  and  other  metals  from  the  same  region. 


348 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


The  only  extensive  manufacture  is  the  rolling  of  cigarettes 
from  imported  tobacco.     Hand  labor  is  largely  employed. 

371.  The  Renaissance  of  Egypt.  Since  a  mutiny  in  the 
Egyptian  army  compelled  European  interference  (1882),  in 
order  to  protect  the  Suez  Canal,  Egypt  has  been  virtually 
a  British  possession  and  a  few  years  ago  (19 14)  was  declared 
a  British  protectorate.  In  the  Sudan,  however,  from  Wady 
Haifa  to  Fashoda,  the  Egyptian  and  British  flags  fly  together. 
The   effects   have    been    revolutionary.     A    few   European 

officials,    chosen 

from  among  several 
nations,  hav6  been 
able,  by  means  of 
honesty  and  econ- 
omy in  handling 
public  money,  to 
reduce  taxation  and 
abolish  forced  labor 
— the  means  by 
which  the  pyra- 
mids (Fig.  233)  were 
built  and  all  subse- 
quent works  exe- 
cuted— yet  at  the 
same  time  to  pay 
off  much  of  the 
public  debt  and  to 
carry  oux  irrigation 
projects     of     com- 


Copyriirht,  !<105.  Keystone  View 

Fig.  234.     Downstream  face  of  Assuan 
Dam  with  gates  open. 


manding  importance.  These,  indeed,  bid  fair  by  increasing 
both  the  area  irrigated  and  the  effectiveness  of  irrigation,  to 
double  or  even  treble  the  productive  powers  of  Egypt.  The 
great  dam  at  Assuan  (Fig.  234)  is  worthy  to  rank  with  anything 
ever  done  in  this  land  of  titanic  achievements.  Already  Egypt 
probably  exceeds  in  population  and  prosperity  the  palmiest  days 
of  the  ancient  Pharaohs. 


AFRICA  349 

372.  The  Commerce  of  Egypt.  The  Nile  Valley  is  the  only 
natural  highway  from  central  Africa  to  the  Mediterranean. 
Navigation  is,  indeed,  broken  by  six  cataracts,  but  a  lock  and 
canal  at  Assuan  now  carry  the  head  of  navigation  toWady 
Haifa,  and  a  railway  extends  southward  to  Khartum. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Egypt  passes  chiefly  through 
Alexandria,  thus  justifying  the  foresight  of  its  founder.  The 
metropolis  of  Egypt  and  of  Africa,  however,  is  Cairo,  standing 
near  the  site  of  ancient  Memphis,  at  the  head  of  the  delta 
where  the  railways  now  converge  to  enter  the  narrow  valley. 
Cairo  also  has  canals  to  Alexandria  and  to  the  Suez  Canal. 
Port  Said,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Suez  Canal,  is  rising  into 
prominence  as  a  coaling  and  transhipment  port.  Port  Sud^n, 
a  new  harbor  near  Sawakin  on  the  Red  Sea,  with  a  railroad  to 
Berber  on  the  Nile,  is  the  outlet  for  the  commerce  of  the  upper 
Nile  Valley. 

373.  The  Suez  Canal.  The  most  important  artificial  water 
way  in  the  world,  measured  by  its  commercial  and  political 
effects,  is  the  vSuez  Canal. ^ 

It  effectively  opened  India  and  the  Far  East  to  European 
commerce.  It  restored  to  the  Mediterranean  countries,  at 
the  expense  of  London  and  other  Atlantic  ports,  much  of  the 
prosperity  which  they  enjoyed  before  Vasco  da  Gama  rounded 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  brought  the  English  to  Egypt; 
and  it  compels  the  English,  or  some  other  European  nation 
permanently  to  garrison  Eg^^pt  in  order  to  safeguard  the  com- 
merce of  the  world. 

374.  Other  North  African  States.  Libya  (Tripolitania  and 
Cirenaica)  was  conquered  by  Italy  from  Turkey  during  the 
war  of  1911-12.  Tunis  is  a  French  protectorate.  Algeria 
is  considered  a  part  of  France. ^  Morocco,  though  nominally 
an  independent  empire,   has  become,   since   19 12   a  French 

^Opened  1869;  87  miles  long,  of  which  21  are  through  lakes;  passable  by 
vessels  drawing  31  ft.  Deepening  (to  a  uniform  depth  of  40  ft.)  is  in  progress. 

2The  dates  of  acquisition  are:  Algeria,  1830;  Tunis,  1881;  Morocco, 
recognized  by  Great  Britain  as  a  French  sphere  of  influence  in  1904,  and 
by  Europe  as  a  French  protectorate  in  1912. 


350 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


protectorate,  though  Spain  occupies  Ceuta  and  a  zone  along 
the  Mediterranean.  The  native  states  having  all  ended  in 
corrupt  and  feeble  despotisms,  France  seems  by  reason  of 
her  position  and  power  to  be  the  natural  heir  of  the  Arab  and 
the  Turk  in  North  Africa. 

In  Tripoli  the  Sahara  meets  the  sea  along  a  low,  sandy 
shore;  elsewhere,  the  lofty  Atlas  range  intervenes,  rising  in 
two  distinct  terraces.  As  in  Syria  and  southern  California, 
rain  comes  in  winter  from  the  west  winds,  while  the  summer 


Courte<«j  of  Clarence  T.  Johflston 

Fig.  235.     Arab  plowing  in  North  Africa  ■ — •  a  typical  team. 

is  almost  rainless.  Irrigation  is  therefore  indispensable  to 
continuous  cropping  (Fig.  235),  though  in  many  districts  grain 
can  be  grown  in  winter  every  other  year  without  irrigation,  as 
in  the  Great  Basin  region  of  North  America.  The  best  watered, 
and  therefore  the  choicest,  part  of  North  Africa  is  Morocco, 
which  lies  the  most  exposed  to  the  west  winds. 

North  Africa  is  well  adapted  to  white  colonization.  Algiers, 
indeed,  lies  in  the  latitude  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.  There  are 
already  over  half  a  million  European  settlers,  largely  Italians 
in  Tunis,  French  in  Algeria,  French  and  Spaniards  in  Morocco. 


AFRICA  351 

375.  Products  of  North  Africa  West  of  Egypt.  North 
Africa  is  in  the  main  a  grazing  country,  pasturing  sheep  and 
goats.  The  arid  plateau  on  the  second  rise  above  the  coastal 
plain,  however,  grows  esparto  grass  (alfa),  used  in  European 
paper  mills;  and  the  mountains  rising  above  this  second 
terrace  bear  the  cork  oak.  The  lands  in  the  valleys  and  along 
the  foot  of  the  mountains  produce  cereals,  chiefly  barley 
and  wheat,  also  beans,  chick-peas,  and  subtropical  fruits. 
Almonds  are  especially  abundant  in  Morocco ;  figs  and  grapes  in 
Algeria;  olives  and  dates  in  Tunis.  The  tobacco  crop,  though 
large,  is  not  of  high  grade.  In  the  French  possessions,  early 
vegetables  for  the  French  markets,  poultry,  and  bees  have 
acquired  some  importance. 

The  coastal  waters  produce  sponges  and  tunny  (tuna), 
huge  fish  many  times  the  size  of  a  man.  The  mineral  resources 
are  valuable.  Zinc,  iron,  and  phosphate  of  Hme  are  already 
largely  exported.  Manufactures  comprise  Morocco  leather, 
Fez  caps,  carpets,  and  blankets,  nearly  all  hand  work. 

376.  Commerce  of  North  Africa  West  of  Egypt.  The 
principal  exports  are  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials,  while 
the  imports  are  manufactures,  especially  cotton  goods, 
besides  coffee  and  sugar. 

In  addition,  the  exports  comprise  ivory,  ostrich  feathers, 
gum  arabic,  and  goatskins,  which  caravans  bring  across  the 
Sahara  as  they  have  done  for  ages  past.  This  transit  trade 
centers  at  the  port  of  Tripoli,  whence  the  route  across  the  Sahara 
is  shortest  and  least  obstructed  by  mountains. 

In  the  French  possessions,  railways  penetrate  to  the  edge 
of  the  Sahara,  while  a  trunk  line  parallels  the  coast.  At  every 
step,  moreover,  on  roads,  harbors,  and  cities,  one  sees  the 
impress  of  France.  The  transformation  which  she  has  wrought 
here  is  most  impressive. 

The  principal  ports  are  Tunis  near  ancient  Carthage,  now 
accessible  by  canal  to  seagoing  vessels;  Bona  in  eastern, 
Algiers  in  central,  and  Oran  in  western  Algeria;  and  Tangier 
in  Morocco,  near  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar, 


352  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

The  Sahara,  lying  in  the  trade-wind  belt,  is  barren  wher- 
ever level.  But  oases,  crowned  with  date  palms  and  densely 
peopled,  are  found  in  depressions  wherever  the  ground  water 
reaches  the  surface;  and  also  along  the  foot  of  ridges  lofty 
enough  to  produce  r-ainfall.  These  highlands  (Tibesti,  Air, 
Aderar),  resembling  the  Nejd  in  Arabia,  support  a  popu- 
lation of  several  millions;  and  the  area  of  cultivation  can 
be  greatly  extended  by  driving  artesian  wells  as  the  French 
have  begun  to  do.  The  commercial  products,  besides  dates, 
are  salt,  ostrich  feathers,  camel's  hair,  and  gum  arable. 

377.  The  Sudan.  The  Sudan  is  a  belt  of  grasslands  over 
600  miles  wide  (approximately  2o°-io°  N.),  having  summer 
rains  but  rainless  winters  like  the  llanos  of  South  America. 
The  Sudan  is  fertile  and  not  unhealthful.  It  is  by  all  odds 
the  most  promising  part  of  tropical  Africa,  with  a  population 
of  many  millions,  and  several  cities  containing  70,000  to 
100,000  inhabitants.  The  camel-owning  Arabs,  crossing  the 
Sahara,  have  subjugated  the  cattle-owning  and  agricultural 
negroes  of  the  Sudan  up  to  the  edge  of  the  great  equatorial 
forests,  and  established  various  well-organized  Mohammedan 
empires,  notably  Sokoto  and  Bomu.  These  are  now  con- 
trolled by  France  or  England. 

■  Classified  according  to  the  principal  means  of  support  of  the 
people,  the  Sahara  proper  is  a  camel  zone,  containing  also 
the  wild  ostrich ;  the  northern  half  of  the  Sudan  is  a  cattle  zone, 
while  the  southern  half  is  a  millet  zone,  raising  also  cotton, 
indigo,  and  tobacco.  This  region  is  the  chief  reliance  of  France 
and  England  in  their  attempt  to  become  independent  of 
the  United  States  in  the  supply  of  raw  cotton.  Finally,  the 
forested  country  to  the  south  is  a  banana  zone. 

The  points  of  departure  for  Mediterranean  caravans  are 
Timbuktu,  on  the  northern  bend  of  the  Niger,  and  Lake 
Chad.  A  railway,  however,  now  connects  the  upper  Niger, 
above  the  falls,  with  the  head  of  navigation  (Kayes)  on  the 
Senegal,  thus  opening  the  western  Sudan,  as  the  railway  from 
the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea  has  opened  the  eastern  Sudan,  to  direct 


AFRICA  353 

European    commerce.     Another    railway    extends    from    the 
coast   to    Kano,    the    principal   trade    center   in    Nigeria. 

378.  The  Horn  of  Africa.  The  horn  of  Africa,  east  of  the 
Egyptian  Sudan,  is  chiefly  a  plain,  arid  because  the  monsoons, 
which  are  governed  by  Asia  (§51),  blow  parallel  to  the  coast. 
This  plain  is  consequently  peopled  only  by  wandering  shepherd 
tribes.     It  is  now  divided  among  three  European  nations. ^ 

From  this  plain  rises  abruptly  the  lofty  volcanic  plateau  of 
Abyssinia,  the  Switzerland  of  Africa.  In  this  mountain 
fastness  the  Abyssinians,  of  mixed  Arab  and  negro  descent 
but  Christian  since  the  fourth  century,  have  bade  defiance 
alike  to  Mohammedans  and  Europeans. 

All  products  from  tropical  to  cold  temperate  can  be  grown 
at  different  elevations,  but  the  pastoral  mode  of  life  prevails. 
The  difficulty  of  transportation  limits  exports  to  articles  of 
small  bulk,  such  as  gold,  ivory,  civet  (perfume),  beeswax,  and 
coffee.  Abyssinia  is  believed  to  be  the  original  home  of  the 
upland  coffee  tree.  The  imports  are  largely  cotton  goods,  of 
which  the  United  States  supplies  a  large  share,  as  in  Arabia. 
The  railway  inland  to  the  plateau  causes  trade  to  pass  mainly 
through  the  French  port  of  Jibuti. 

379.  "The  World  of  the  Great  Forest."  Equatorial  Africa 
(io°N.-io°S.),  receiving  heavy  rains  from  the  ascending  air 
currents,  is  densely  forested,  particularly  in  the  region  of  the 
Atlantic  slope.  It  is  peopled,  especially  in  the  lowlands,  by  frag- 
ments of  beaten  tribes  who  have  found  refuge  in  "the  great 
almshouse  of  the  Tropics,"  where  Nature  is  so  lavish  of  her 
bounty  that  no  incentive  remains  for  labor.  The  climate  is 
such  that  West  Africa  is  commonly  called  by  the  natives 
"the  white  man's  grave."  Politically,  this  region  is  cut  up 
into  a  large  number  of  colonies  ruled  by  five  different  nations 
of  Europe,  besides  Liberia  which  is  nominally  independent. 

The  most  valuable  products  are  ivory,  which  has  been  for 

Africa  all  that  the  fur  trade  was  for  America,   and  forest 

1  Italy  has  two  sections  of  the  coast,  with  the  port  of  Massawa; 
England,  the  coast  around  Berbera;  France,  Obok  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Red  Sea,  with  the  port  of  Jibuti. 


354  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  * 

products — especially  palm  oil,  palm  kernels,  and  shea  nuts 
on  the  west  coast,  rubber  from  a  giant  creeper,  copal  resin, 
camwood  yielding  a  red  dye,  mangrove  bark  for  tanning,  and 
cola  nuts,  the  last  named  furnishing  a  powerfiil  stimulant. 

The  principal  export  crops  are  oil  seeds  (peanuts,  sesame, 
castor  beans)  on  the  Senegal;  lowland  or  Liberian  coffee  in  the 
west,  and  upland  coffee  in  East  Africa;  cocoa  on  the  slopes  of 
Kamerun  volcano;  and  cloves  on  Zanzibar  and  Pemba,  which 
supply  most  of  the  cloves  of  commerce.  There  are  also  large 
plantations  of  other  products,  especially  of  cotton,  rubber, 
and  sisal. 

Gold-bearing  sands  occur  in  the  rivers  along  the  "Gold 
Coast,"  and  tin  is  found  in  the  Bauchi  Plateau. 

380.  The  Commerce  of  Equatorial  Africa.  Commerce 
mainly  follows  the  water  ways^  in  West  Africa,  especially  the 
Niger  and  the  mighty  Congo,  the  Amazon  of  Africa,  which 
drains  the  basin  of  a  former  inland  sea.  There  are,  however, 
several  railways,  including  one  around  Stanley  Falls,  on  the 
Congo.     Another  line  will  connect  the  Congo  with  the  Nile. 

East  Africa,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  lowlands  are 
narrow,  depends  entirely  on  land  transportation.  A  railway 
now  connects  the  fine  port  of  Mombasa  with  Victoria  Nyanza, 
next  to  Superior  the  largest  lake  in  the  world;  and  another 
line  extends  from  Dar-es-Salam  to  Lake  Tanganyika. 

The  lofty  plateau  of  East  Africa,  largely  covered  with  grass 
or  small  scrub  and  having  a  climate  almost  temperate,  because 
of  altitude,  even  under  the  equator,  is  the  natural  route  of  the 
proposed  Cape-to-Cairo  Railway,  just  as  the  Andean  plateau 
is  of  the  Pan-American. 

381.  "White  Man's  Africa."  South  of  10°  S.,  the  high 
plateau  (3,000-7,000  feet  elevation)  spreads  out  west- 
ward, occupying  almost  the  entire  width  of  the  continent. 
This  section  has  been  called  "white  man's  Africa,"  being  well 

'The  West  African  rivers  are  navigable  as  follows:  Senegal  to 
Kayes,  460  miles;  Gambia,  220;  Niger  to  Rahba,  450;  Benue  almost 
to  source;  Congo  to  Boma  and  again  from  Stanley  Pool  to  Stanley 
Falls,  offering  with  its  tributaries  7,000  miles  of  navigable  waters. 


AFRICA 


355 


suited  for  settlement  by  Europeans.  (Fig.  230.)  The  Boers 
show  what  manner  of  men  the  high  veldt  (plateau)  produces 
in  temperate  South  Africa, 

Politically,  most  of  South  Africa  is  British,  and  forms  a  self- 
governing  federation  like  Canada.  In  southern  Africa  the 
Portuguese  also  have  large  possessions.  The  white  population 
is,  however,  predominantly  Dutch  in  blood.  The  colored  popu- 
lation, which  outnumbers  the  white  probably  ten  to  one, 
has  been  further  recijTiited  by  Hindus  imported  to  work  the 


Fig.  236.     The  market  place  at  Johannesburg. 

plantations,  and  by  Chinese  to  work  the  mines — though    the 
latter  are  being  gradually  sent  back  to  China. 

382.  Products  of  the  Soil  in  South  Africa.  The  zone 
between  10°  and  20°  S.,  including  most  of  Rhodesia,  is  a  belt 
of  grassland  corresponding  in  latitude  and  climate  to  the 
Sudan.  Some  coffee  is  grown  on  the  seaward  slopes,  and 
cotton  is  a  promising  crop  on  the  plateau.     Farther  south, 


3S6  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

on  the  Natal  lowlands,  the  chief  export  crop  is  sugar  cane, 
while  the  uplands  grow  some  tea  for  local  use. 

South  Africa  receives  summer  rains  chiefly  from  the  south- 
east trade  wind,  only  the  southern  tip  having  rain  in  winter 
from  the  westerly  winds.  As  in  Australia,  the  mountains  on 
the  eastern  shore  condense  the  moisture  on  their  seaward 
slope,  leaving  most  of  the  interior  too  dry  for  agriculture. 

South  Africa,  therefore,  is  in  the  main  a  pastoral  country, 
raising  chiefly  sheep  and  goats,  with  cattle  on  the  richer 
pastures  of  the  north  and  east.  Ostrich  farming  is  also  a 
large  industry.  The  zebra,  immune  against  the  tsetse  fly  but 
long  reputed  untamable,  is  both  ridden  and  driven.  In  the 
agricultural  zone,  consisting  of  a  strip  perhaps  lOO  miles  wide 
across  the  south  and  another  300  miles  wide  along  the  east, 
cereals  are  grown,  but  much  food  must  be  imported.  The 
climate  is  very  favorable  to  fruits,  which  command  better 
prices  because  they  ripen  during  the  northern  winter.  The 
bark  of  a  tree,  the  black  wattle,  native  to  Australia,  is  largely 
exported  for  use  in  tanning. 

383.  Other  Resources  of  South  Africa.  South  Africa  near 
the  Zambezi  has  been  identified  by  some,  on  account  of  its 
ancient  ruins,  as  the  Ophir  of  King  Solomon. 

The  Kimberley  mines  now  supply  nearly  all  (98  per  cent}  of 
the  world's  diamonds.  Other  diamond  deposits  have  also 
begun  to  be  worked  in  sections  of  Southwest  Africa.  The 
Transvaal,  near  Johannesburg,  and  Rhodesia  contain  the 
largest  known  deposits  of  gold.  (Fig.  138.)  South  Africa  is 
also  rich  in  copper,  lead,  and  zinc,  especially  at  Broken  Hill; 
while  coal,  iron,  and  limestone  lie  side  by  side  on  both  flanks 
of  the  Drakenberg  Range.  Coal  is  mined  in  Natal  and  the 
Transvaal,  also  in  the  rich  Wankics  Field  near  Victoria  Falls. 
Oil  fields  exist  in  Angola,  and  large  guano  deposits  in  the  arid 
parts  of  Southwest  Africa. 

Water  power  is  also  available  along  the  edge  of  the  plateau, 
especially  at  Victoria  Falls,  where  the  Zambezi,  2,000  yards 
wide,   falls    450   feet    and    is   estimated    to   afford    twice    the 


AFRICA  357 

power  of  Niagara.  It,  however,  varies  considerably  with  the 
seasons,  shrinking  in  winter  and  rising  in  summer. 

384.     Trade   Routes   and  Trade   Centers   of   South  Africa. 

The  one  natural  waterway  is  the  Zambezi,  navigable  to  Tete 
(260  miles);  while  a  tributary  is  navigable,  except  for  one 
break,  to  Lake  Nyassa. 

The  principal  railway  net  is  in  Southeast  Africa.  A  trunk 
line  extends  from  Cape  Town  well  across  the  Zambezi,  with 
several  branches  to  the  eastern  coast.  This  is  a  part  of  the 
projected  Cape-to-Cairo  line,  which  is  likely  to  be  an  accom- 
plished fact  long  before  the  Pan-American  Railway  is  com- 
pleted. At  Victoria  Falls  the  Zambezi  Valley  narrows  so  as 
to  be  spanned  by  a  bridge,  the  loftiest  in  the  world,  thus 
avoiding  the  steep  grades  and  deadly  climate  of  the  lower 
Zambezi.  The  railways  on  the  west  coast  are  as  yet  short, 
disconnected  lines;  but  a  through  Hne  is  building  from 
Lobito  Bay,^  which  will  save  three  or  foiu*  days  for  passen- 
gers and  mail  between  London  and  Johannesburg. 

The  ports  on  the  south  are  Cape  Town,  Port  Elizabeth,  the 
leading  grain  port,  and  East  London,  all  having  either  exposed 
or  artificial  harbors.  As  trade  follows  the  lines  of  least 
resistance,  it  has  largely  shifted  to  ports^  nearer  the  principal 
market  at  Johannesburg,  the  commercial  center  of  the  gold 
fields  (Fig.  236);  especially  Durban,  on  a  landlocked  harbor 
now  accessible  to  large  vessels,  and  Lour'engo  Marques,  on 
Delagoa  Bay,  sometimes  called  "the  key  of  South  Africa." 
The  outlet  of  Rhodesia  is  Beira,  another  Portuguese  port. 

The  Cape  was  first  occupied  by  the  Dutch,  and  seized  by 
the  English  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  as  a  station  on  the 

iThe  contract  provided  for  the  building  of  870  miles,  to  the  Katanga 
copper  district,  by  191 1,  but  it  has  been  delayed. 

2  The  road  from  Durban  enters  the  Orange  Free  State  through  Van 
Reenens  Pass  (5,500  feet),  and  the  Transvaal  through  Laings  Nek,  the 
scene  of  many  battles.  A  second  and  more  direct  railway  (337  miles) 
has  been  undertaken  from  Lourengo  Marques  to  Johannesburg.  The 
Beira  line  to  Salisbury  is  350  miles  long  and  connects  at  Buluwayo  with 
the  Cape  line. 


358 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


way  to  India.  Despite  the  Suez  Canal,  the  great  naval  station 
at  False  Bay  is  still  a  vital  link  in  the  British  Empire. 

385.  The  Commerce  of  South  Africa.  The  commercial 
importance  of  South  Africa  arises  mostly  from  its  exports  of 
gold  and  diamonds,  and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  from  wool,  mohair, 
hides,  and  ostrich  feathers,  (Fig.  237.)  The  principal  imports 
are  textiles  and  other  manufactures,  besides  foodstuffs. 
South  Africa,  being  practically  as  near  by  water  to  the 
United  States  as  to  Europe,  is  a  market  of  great  promise 
for  American  commerce. 

Three-fourths  of  the  commerce  of  Africa  originates  in  the 
temperate  sections  at  the  extremjes  of  the  continent,  which 

59%  16%  25% 


Gold 
174  million  dollars 

Diamonds 
16 

All  others 

'' 

57% 

11%      9%      9%         U% 

Imports  by  countries 

Great  Britain 
105  million  dollars 

British 
posscs- 

19 

is 

1| 

a*- 
Dm 

All 

others 

26 

Data  from  Statesman's  Year  Book,  1910-14 


Fig.  237.     Commerce  of  Union  of  South  Africa.     Totals,  five-year  averages 

{millions  of  dollars):  exports,  2Q2,  nearly  all  {qo%)  to  Great 

Britain;  imports,  182,  mostly  (74%)  manufactures. 

illustrates  the  effect  of  climate;  and  nine-tenths  of  American 
commerce  with  Africa  is  carried  on  with  the  British  posses- 
sions, which  illustrates  the  effect  of  language  and  customs. 

386.  African  Islands  in  the  Atlantic.  The  Atlantic  groups 
associated  with  Africa  have  fertile  volcanic  soil,  but  irrigation 
is  usually  needful  in  the  lowlands.  The  Madeira  Islands, 
enjoying  a  climate  of  perpetual  spring,  export  chiefly  wine  and 
southern  fruits.  The  Canaries — the  Insulae  Fortimatae  or 
Fortunate  Isles  of  the  ancients — produce  early  vegetables, 
butter,  and  eggs,  largely  for  the  steamer  trade ;  also  a  dye  moss 
called  orchilla  (litmus),  dyeing  blue,  and  the  cochineal  insect, 
grown  on  a  species  of  cactus  and  yielding  a  red  color.  The 
Cape  Verde  group,  a  tropical  colony' with  a  colored  population, 
raises  quantities  of  castor  beans.     The  islands  in  the  Gulf  of 


AFRICA  359 

Guinea  grow  cocoa  and  coffee,  using  negro  "contract"  labor 
that  is  slave  labor  in  all  but  name.  Ascension  and  St.  Helena 
— the  scene  of  Napoleon's  captivity — are  practically  barren 
and  useless  since  the  nibbling  goat  has  destroyed  the  forests. 

The  chief  value  of  the  Atlantic  islands^  lies  in  their  excellent 
harbors — Funchal,  Las  Palmas,  and  St.  Vincent — admirably 
placed  to  serve  as  cable,  coaling,  and  supply  stations  on  the 
routes  to  South  America  and  South  Africa.  For  this  reason 
they  are  jealously  watched  by  the  great  commercial  nations. 

387.  African  Islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  islands 
in  the  Indian  Ocean^  are  partly  volcanic  and  partly  coralline, 
while  Madagascar  is  a  fragment  of  some  continent,  possibly 
one  which  extended  to  India  and  Australia.  The  native 
population  is  a  mixture  of  negro,  Arab,  Hindu,  and  Malay. 
In  Mauritius,  where  Hindus  and  Chinese  were  imported  as 
laborers,  they  have  gotten  hold  of  the  landed  property  both 
in  town  and  country,  and  have  largely  ousted  their  former 
employers. 

The  products  of  Madagascar  are  gold,  cattle  from  the  lofty 
temperate  plateau,  and  forest  products  from  the  slopes, 
especially  rubber,  raffia  (a  palm  fiber),  and  beeswax.  On  the 
lesser  islands  the  staple  crops  are  sugar  cane,  vanilla,  and 
cocoanuts.  Mauritius  also  produces  aloe  fiber,  which  resem- 
bles sisal  fiber.  The  principal  commercial  port  in  Madagascar 
is  Tamatave,  the  outlet  by  rail  of  the  lofty  interior  plateau. 

1  Politically,  the  Madeira  and  Cape  Verde  islands,  also  St.  Thomas 
and  Principe,  are  Portuguese;  the  Canary  Islands,  Fernando  Po,  and 
Annobon  are  Spanish;  Ascension  and  St.  Helena  are  British. 

2  British,  except  Reunion,  Madagascar,  and  the  islands  to  the  west- 
ward of  Madagascar,  which  are  French.  Most  of  the  whites  are,  how- 
ever, of  French  descent  and  language.  In  Madagascar  the  Hovas,  the 
ruling  race,  were  mostly  converted  by  English  missionaries  before  the 
French  conquest. 


XXVII— THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA  AND  ROUMANIA 

388.  Surface  and  Climate  of  Europe.  Europe  is  merely  a 
peninsula  of  Asia,  and  in  both  continents  the  principal  moun- 
tains run  from  east  to  west  (§128).  An  older  mountain  system 
(in  part,  a  much  eroded  plateau)  traverses  the  British  Islands 
and  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  A  younger  mountain 
system,  or  series  of  systems,  extends  across  the  south,  includ- 
ing the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  Carpathians,  and  Caucasus  mountains, 
which  are  continued  still  farther  eastward  by  the  Hindu  Kush 
and  Himalayan  ranges.  Between  the  older  and  the  younger 
upland  regions  extends  the  great  North  European  Plain,  which 
rises  but  little  above  sea  level.     (Fig.  239.) 

Adjacent  to  Europe  lie  three  great  inland  seas — the  Medi- 
terranean, Black,  and  Baltic.  The  North  Sea  is  also,  in  effect, 
inland ;  and  there  are  numerous  lesser  gulfs  and  bays,  separated 
by  projections  of  the  land.  As  a  result,  there  is  said  to  be 
no  place  in  Europe  a  thousand  miles  from  salt  water. 

Latitude  alone  would  render  the  larger  part  of  Europe 
frigid.  Nearly  all  of  it  lies  farther  north  than  New  York, 
and  all  but  the  Mediterranean  peninsulas  lies  farther  north 
than  Minneapolis.  The  east  and  west  trend  of  the  moun- 
tains, however,  sharply  differentiates  the  climate  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region  from  that  of  the  northern  plain  (§128);  and 
at  the  same  time  it  permits  the  moderating  influence  of  the 
Atlantic  to  be  borne  far  inland  by  the  prevailing  westerly 
winds.  There  are  consequently  three  climatic  regions.  The 
Mediterranean  is  of  the  mild  subtropical  type,  with  winter 
rains  (>;52).  The  west  European  region,  north  of  the  Pyrenees 
and  Alps,  is  never  very  hot  nor  very  cold,  but  is  usually  very 
moist,  with  the  heaviest  rainfall  in  winter  just  as  in  Wash- 
ington and  British  Columbia.  The  east  European  region, 
comprising  chiefly  Russia,  is  marked  by  greater  extremes  of 

heat  and  cold  and  is  rather  dry,  with  the  most  rainfall  in 

(360) 


Fig.  238      The  British  Isles. 


Cc.f,ri,),r,  191U,  S»  i'a«J  J(«.VoH»  i  Co. 

360 


Fig.  239.     1 


pe,  IQ14. 


EUROPE 

Scale 

0  so  100    200    300    400 


^*^ri  \lA^  \  0  so  100   ,^00    300    400 

'-'   '^V  \^bo  Statute  Miles  to  one  inch 
^^0^  Railwavs 


Kailways  . 
Navigable  rivers - 
^  Steamship  U 


Copyright,  iqis,  by  Rand  McNally  &'  Company 


THE   BALKAN    PENINSULA    AND    ROUMANIA 


361 


summer,  resembling  the  Dakotas.  North  of  the  Alps,  the 
climate  thus  varies  more  from  west  to  east  than  from  south  to 
north.     (Fig.  241.) 

389.  Why  Europe  is  Civilized.  Europe  is  the  true  father- 
land of  civilization.  To  it  the  younger  nations  in  America, 
Australia,  South  Africa,  and  the  islands  of  the  sea  look  back 
as  to  their  old  home. 

The  elements  of  material  civilization  were,  indeed,  derived 
from  the  Orient;  but  the  development  of  the  arts  that  adorn 


Fig.  241.     Rainfall  of  Europe. 

and  the  inward  graces  of  character  that  ennoble  human  life 
took  place  on  the  soil  of  Europe.  This  it  was  that  came 
to  pass  in  ancient  Greece  and  rendered  it  the  fountain  head 
of  culture  for  the  western  world. 

The  rapid  advance  of  Europe  in  civilization,  outstripping 
lands  like  Egypt,  Mesopotamia,  India,  and  China  that  had 
a  start  of   thousands   of   years,    was    largely    a   matter   of 

Ki 


362 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


climate  (which  compelled  the  accumulation  of  resources  for 
winter)  and  of  surface  features.     It  was  in   fact  due  in  no 

small  measure  to  the 
wealth  of  Europe  in 
seas,  gulfs,  and 
peninsulas,  which 
carry  both  the 
climatic  and  com- 
mercial influence  of 
the  ocean  far  inland. 
This  was  even  more 
clearly  the  case  in 
Greece  (§35). 

The  civilization  of 
Europe  also  owes 
much  to  race  and 
religion  (§57.)  A 
Mongolian  Europe 
would  doubtless  be 
in  many  respects 
another  China,  and 
a  Mohammedan 
Europe  but  a  larger 
Turkey,  sunk  in 
squalor   and    decay. 


Fin.  242.  Balkan  Peninsula  and  Rouinania. 


390.  The  Peoples  of  Europe.  The  diversity  of  the  land  is 
reflected  in  the  people.  Nowhere  else  are  there  so  many 
civilized  nations  and  cultivated  languages  in  so  small  an  area. 
The  population  is  also  very  dense.  Thus  Europe,  only  a  trifle 
larger  than  the  United  States  and  Alaska,  contains  twenty-one 
independent  nations,  besides  five  actual  or  virtual  protectorates 
(Luxemburg,  Liechtenstein,  San  Marino,  Andorra,  Monaco); 
in  all,  twenty-six  states  more  or  less  sovereign.  (Fig.  239.) 
Their  combined  population  is  in  round  numbers  400,000,000, 
practically  the  same  as  China. 

Measured  by  language,  most  of  the  European  peoples  are 


THE    BALKAN    PENINSULA    AND   ROUMANIA  363 

Aryan,  like  the  ancient  Persians  and  the  northern  Hindus. 
They  fall  into  six  groups.  (Fig.  229.)  In  the  south  are 
the  Latin  nations — the  Portuguese,  Spaniards,  French,  Ital- 
ians, and  Roumanians — all  speaking  dialects  derived  from  the 
tongue  of  ancient  Rome.  In  the  northwest  around  the  North 
Sea  are  the  Teutonic  nations,  Scandinavians,  Germans,  Dutch, 
Flemish  (in  northern  Belgium),  and  English.  In  the  east  are 
the  Slavic  peoples,  Russians,  Poles,  Bohemians,  Serbians, 
Bulgarians,  and  others.  Also  Aryan  by  speech,  though 
belonging  to  neither  of  these  groups,  are  the  Greeks,  and 
Albanians  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula;  the  Celts  in  Ireland, 
Wales,  Brittany,  and  the  highlands  of  Scotland;  finally  the 
Lithuanians  on  the  Baltic. 

Outside  the  circle  of  Aryan  peoples  are  the  Basques  in  the 
Pyrenees,  of  unknown  relationship;  also  the  Turks,  Hunga- 
rians, Tartars,  Lapps,  and  Finns,  all  of  Mongolian  speech  and 
Asiatic  origin. 

391.  Why  the  Balkan  Peninsula  is  Undeveloped.  The 
Balkan  Peninsula  (Fig.  242)  contains  Greece,  the  cradle  of 
European  civilization;  Macedonia,  the  home  of  Alexander, 
who  carried  this  civilization  to  the  gates  of  India;  and  Con- 
stantinople, the  Imperial  City  where  it  survived  the  dark 
and  stormy  night  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Yet  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula is  to-day  the  most  barbarous  and  commercially  the  least 
developed  part  of  Europe. 

One  reason  is  that  its  valleys  open  toward  the  barbarous 
East.  It  is  thus  exposed  to  invasion  from  southern  Russia 
and  western  Asia.  By  these  routes  came  Slavs,  Bulgarians, 
and  Turks,  who  between  them  destroyed  the  Eastern  Empire. 

Another  reason  is  that  the  mountains  render  transportation 
difficult.  Moreover,  they  separate  the  peninsula  into  distinct 
districts  now  occupied  by  difiierent  races,  languages,  and 
religions,  whose  constant  strife  has  rendered  economic  progress 
all  but  impossible. 

Besides  the  Turks,  who  are  largely  outnumbered  in  European 
Turkey  by  Christians,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 


364  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

comprise:  (i)  Greeks,  living  on  all  the  coasts  and  islands  in 
addition  to  Greece;  (2)  Albanians,  in  part  Mohammedan, 
along  the  Adriatic;  (3)  Serbians^  in  the  west  and  Bulgarians^ 
in  the  east,  both  Slavic  peoples;  (4)  Roumanians  (that  is, 
Romans)  in  the  mountains  of  northern  Greece  and  Serbia, 
as  well  as  in  Roumania  and  Hungary.^  The  Christians  are 
almost  solidly  Greek  Catholic  except  along  the  Adriatic,  where 
they  are  in  part  Roman  Catholic. 

The  bond  of  union  between  the  widely-sundered  Greeks  is 
now,  as  in  ancient  times,  the  sea;  and  Greek,  far  from  being 
a  "dead  language,"  is  next  to  French  the  principal  commercial 
language  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 

392.  The  Agricultural  Products  of  Greece.  Greece,  like 
southern  California,  is  almost  rainless  in  summer,  when  the 
northeast  trade  winds  begin  farthest  north.  Irrigation  is 
therefore  needful  for  agriculture,  especially  toward  the  south 
and  east.  Greece  is  consequently  in  large  part  a  pastoral 
country,  raising  sheep  and  goats.  Mount  Hymettos,  however, 
is  still  famous  for  honey;  and  the  mountain  slopes,  though 
now  largely  stripped  of  timber,  and  consequently  of  soil, 
bear  patches  of  valonia  oak,  used  for  tanning.  The  island 
fisheries  also  yield  excellent  sponges. 

The  plains  and  valleys,  tliough  small,  are  fertile  and  have 
been  in  all  ages  the  centers  of  population.  Ancient  Athens 
was  embowered  in  oHve  groves  which  yielded  her  chief  article 
of  export,  and  olives  are  still  important  throughout  Greece. 
Here,  as  in  other  Mediterranean  countries,  pasturage  dries  up 
in  summer  unless  irrigated.  Dairy  products  are  consequently 
expensive,  and  olive  oil  is  commonly  used  in  place  of  butter. 
It  likewise  takes  the  place,  to  some  extent,  of  meat  in  the  diet 

'Inhabiting  from  the  Balkans  to  the  Adriatic,  sovith  of  the  Drave 
River — that  is,  a  region  several  times  the  size  of  Servia. 

-Named  from  a  tribe  of  Finns  who  settled  there  and  adopted  the 
Slavic  tongue. 

^Thus  showing  that  the  eastern  as  well  as  the  western  provinces  of 
the  Roman  Empire  must  have  adopted  the  Latin  tongue  before  the 
barbarimi  invasions,  except  where  Greek  prevailed.  See  Partsch, 
Ccniral  iLitrcpc,  p.  128. 


THE   BALKAN    PENINSULA    AND   ROUMANIA  365 

of  the  people.  The  main  support  of  modern  Greek  commerce, 
however,  is  the  "currant,"  a  small  seedless  grape  grown  chiefly 
in  the  Patras  district.  In  addition,  southern  Greece  produces 
wine,  figs,  and  raw  silk.  In  central  Greece  the  land  formerly 
occupied  by  Lake  Kopais,  now  drained,  is  planted  with  cotton. 
Thessaly,  the  dry  bed  of  a  great  lake  which  finally  secured  an 
outlet  through  the  famous  Vale  of  Tempe,  grows  wheat,  corn, 
and  barley. 

The  plains  of  Macedonia  also  grow  grain  and  excellent 
"Turkish"  tobacco,  while  the  Greek  islands  produce  wine, 
olives,    oranges,    and   carobs. 

393.  Other  Products  of  Greece.  The  mineral  resources  of 
Greece  are  varied  and  more  developed,  because  near  the  sea, 
than  elsewhere  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  The  silver-lead 
deposits  of  Laurion,  which  built  the  Athenian  navy,  thereby 
founding  the  political  power  of  ancient  Athens,  are  still  pro- 
ductive. Iron,  manganese,  zinc,  antimony,  and  chrome  are  also 
mined.  Naxos  yields  emery;  Euboea,  magnesite;  and  Paros, 
the  finest  marble.  In  Macedonia  are  the  gold  and  silver 
deposits  which  once  furnished  the  means  for  the  conquests  of 
Philip  and  of  Alexander  the  Great,  though  their  present  value 
remains  to  be  determined. 

Coal,  except  for  a  little  lignite,  is  lacking.  Nevertheless 
Greece,  like  Switzerland,  is  making  some  headway  in  manu- 
factures, using  water  power  at  Vodena,  and  imported  coal  at 
Piraeus,  the  chief  manufacturing  center  of  Greece,  to  operate 
cotton,  paper,  and  flour  mills. 

Railways  from  Athens  penetrate  and  circle  the  Pelopon- 
nesus (Morea),  extending  to  Kalamata.  Another  line  from 
Athens  through  Larissa  (once  the  home  of  Achilles)  will  con- 
nect with  Salonica,  making  Piraeus  a  rival  of  Brindisi  for  the 
mail  and  passenger  traffic  with  the  Far  East. 

The  trade  of  Old  Greece  largely  centers  at  Piraeus,  the  port 
of  Athens,  and  at  Patras.  Both  profit  from  the  Corinthian 
Canal  (1893),  which  saves  twenty  hours,  though  many  ships 
avoid  it   because   narrow   and    beset   by   strong   winds   and 


366 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


currents.  (Fig.  243.)  Volos  is  the  port  of  Thessaly,  as  Kala- 
mata  is  of  southern  Greece.  In  the  islands  Hermoupolis  or 
Syra,  a  free  port  with  a  splendid  harbor,  is  an  important 
coaling  and  fishing  station.  Corfu  occupies  a  similar  position 
in  the  Adriatic. 

In  New  Greece  the  principal  port  is  Saloniki,  on  a  deep  bay 


Fig.  243.     Vessel  traversing  the  Corinthian  Canal. 

at  the  head  of  the  JE^can,  the  natural  outlet  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula  toward  the  Suez  Canal. 

394.  The  Commerce  of  Greece.  The  United  States  has 
direct  steamship  connection  with  Greece  and  is  a  large  pur- 
chaser of  the  principal  Grecian  exports — currants  and  ores. 
Other  countries  supply  most  of  the  Grecian  imports,  which 
are  mainly  foodstuffs,  raw  cotton,  and  manufactured  goods. 


THE   BALKAN   PENINSULA    AND    ROUMANIA  367 

395.  Serbia  and  Montenegro.  After  the  peace  of  Versailles 
(19 1 8)  Serbia  and  Montenegro  l)ecame  integral  parts  of  the 
Serb-Croat-Slovene  State  (Czecho-Slovakia).  Montenegro 
consists  largely  of  mountain  pastures,  which  support  sheep 
and  goats,  with  some  cattle.  It  has,  however,  a  few  miles  of 
seacoast  on  the  Adriatic. 

Serbia  was  originally  forested  with  oak,  and  the  acorns  fed 
immense  herds  of  swine.  This  condition  still  exists  in  remote 
districts,  and  the  forests  there  also  furnish  lumber  for  staves. 
In  the  main,  however,  Serbia  is  now  a  region  of  upland  pas- 
tures, supporting  sheep  and  cattle.  Agriculture  has  made  some 
progress  in  the  valleys,  especially  along  the  Vardar  and  in  the 
rich  upland  basin  around  Monastir,  which  fell  to  Serbia  after 
the  war  with  Turkey  (1913).  All  the  common  grains  are 
grown,  besides  plums  for  prunes  and  brandy.  The  mountains 
are  said  to  abound  in  metals,  and  there  is  a  small  output  of  coal. 
Manufactures  are  mostly  household  industries  carried  on  by 
hand  as  in  western  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

396.  Bulgaria.  Bulgaria  comprises  chiefly  the  two  slopes  of 
the  Balkan  Mountains  (which  have  ever  formed  the  Bulgarian 
stronghold  in  times  of  trouble)  together  with  the  adjacent 
valleys.  In  the  division  of  Turkey,  Bulgaria  also  secured 
the  Rhodope  range,  with  the  ^^gean  coast  between  the  Mesta 
and  Maritsa  rivers  but  lost  the  latter  in  the  World  War. 

The  uplands  are  largely  under  natural  grass,  as  in  Serbia, 
and  animal  products  are  important  exports.  The  first  place, 
however,  is  held  by  grain,  chiefly  wheat,  grown  in  the  broad 
Danube  Valley.  The  southern  slope  of  the  Balkans,  which 
serve  like  the  Alps  as  a  climatic  boundary,  produces  grapes, 
tobacco,  silk,  rice  in  the  Maritsa  Valley,  and  roses  around 
Sipka  or ' '  Wild  Rose ' '  Pass  for  the  manufacture  of  attar  of  roses. 
Silk  production,  formerly  an  important  industry,  declined  be- 
cause of  disease  among  the  silkworms,  but  has  been  revived 
with  considerable  success.  In  Bulgaria,  as  in  Serbia,  minerals 
are  abundant,  though  mostly  unworked,  except  for  a  small 
output  of  coal.     The  principal  factory  industry  (and  that  but 


368  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

little  developed)  is  the  weaving  of  woolen  goods  by  water  power 
along  the  foot  of  the  Balkan^. 

397.  Turkey  in  Europe.  Turkey  in  Europe  was  reduced, 
as  a  result  of  the  Balkan  War  (19 13),  to  the  wide  plain  east 
of  the  Maritsa  (ancient  Thrace),  Gallipoli  Peninsula,  and  the 
rugged  peninsula  containing  Constantinople.  All  but  this  last 
was  lost  as  a  result  of  the  World  War  (19 14-18).  Most  of 
the  population  in  the  Thracian  plain,  and  all  of  it  in  the 
islands,  is  Greek,  since  the  Turks  are  still  by  preference 
pastoral,  keeping  sheep  and  goats  on  the  hill  pastures. 

The  rugged  surface  practically  limits  agriculture  to  the  plain 
of  the  Maritsa.  The  soil  there  is  worked  in  primitive  fashion, 
chiefly  by  the  Greek  population,  producing  for  export  wheat, 
opiimi,  raw  silk,  and  tobacco.  There  are  also  valuable  fisheries, 
especially  in  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 

The  export  manufactures  are  chiefly  carpets  woven  by  hand 
leather  goods,  and  attar  of  roses. 

398.  The  Commerce  of  Turkey.  Turkey  in  Europe,  as  in 
Asia,  exports  chiefly  raw  materials,  besides  rugs  and  dried 
fruits;  and  imports  mainly  manufactured  goods. 

Constantinople,  which  has  a  splendid  harbor  on  the  Bosporus, 
occupies  a  position  of  commanding  importance,  both  strategic 
and  commercial.  The  chain  of  lofty  mountains  stretching 
from  the  Atlantic  eastward  across  Europe  is  broken  only  in  two 
places — in  France  by  the  gap  between  the  Pyrenees  and 
the  Alps,  and  at  Constantinople  by  navigable  water  giving 
direct  access  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  thus  to  the  vast  north 
European  and  north  Asiatic  plain.  What  this  position  would 
mean  under  decent  government  passes  imagination.  Con- 
stantinople, moreover,  has  one  railway  running  along  the 
coastal  plain  to  the  west  and  another  extending  to  the  Danube 
by  way  of  the  Maritsa-Morava  Pass  (5,400  feet).  This  line 
of  communication  is  the  route  of  the  Orient  Express  from  Paris. 
(Fig.  239.) 

Adrianople,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Maritsa,  com- 
mands the  valley  leading  up  to  the  Sipka  (Shipka)  Pass  acr(jss 


THE    BALKAN    PENINSULA    AND    ROUMANIA  3^9 

the  Balkans.  It  is  therefore  a  fortress  as  well  as  a  market. 
In  all  ages  the  great  "diagonal  furrows"  formed  by  the  Vardar 
and  Maritsa  valleys  have  been  the  chief  routes  both  of  com- 
merce and  of  war. 

399.  Roumania.  Rotmiania,  another  independent  country, 
is  the  strongest  of  the  states  which  have  arisen  on  the  ruins  of 
Turkey.  Embracing  the  northern  part  of  the  Danube  Valley, 
together  with  Transylvania,  Bukowina  and  two  thirds  of  the 
Banat,  it  is  one  of  the  granaries  of  Europe.  The  principal 
crops  are  com,  wheat,  and  other  small  grains,  besides  flax  and 
colza  seeds  for  oil.  In  the  export  of  corn  Roumania  ranks  next 
to  the  United  States.  (Figs.  190  and  277.)  Grapes  and  plums 
also  occupy  some  land.  The  region  east  of  the  Danube  is  a 
pastoral  plateau,  supporting  sheep  and  cattle.  The  Carpa- 
thians furnish  timber,  also  great  quantities  of  salt  and  petro- 
leum. The  oil  wells  are  largely  run  by  water  power,  and  pipe 
lines  extend  to  the  Black  Sea  at  Constanza  (Kustenji).  Manu- 
factures are  chiefly  flour  and  lumber. 

400.  Danubian  States.  The  Danube  countries  are  commer- 
cially much  alike.  They  all  export  chiefly  pastoral  and  agricul- 
tural products;  Roumania  also  exports  petroleum.  They  thus 
compete  in  European  markets  with  American  farm  products. 
The  imports  mainly  are  textile  and  metal  manufactures,  trade 
for  the  most  part  being  with  Central  and  Northern  Europe. 

The  great  highway  of  commerce  is  the  Danube,  though  it  is 
icebound  for  two  months.  As  far  as  the  Iron  Gate,  where  the 
river  has  cut  through  the  Carpathians  and  a  canal  was  built 
around  the  rapids,  the  Danube  was  under  the  control  of  an 
International  Commission.  The  pre-war  powers  of  this  com- 
mission has  been  revived  and  the  Upper  Danube  is  controlled 
by  a  new  International  Commission. 

The  trunk-line  railway  from  Paris,  crossing  the  river  at 
Belgrade,  the  commercial  center  of  Serbia,  follows  the  Morava 
Valley  to  Nish,  where  it  forks  to  Saloniki  and  Constantinople. 
The  eastern  or  Constantinople  line  traverses  the  plateau  on 
which  Sofia,  the  capital  of  Bulgaria,  stands  at  the  focus  of 


370  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

mountain  valleys.  The  chief  railway  over  the  Balkans  also 
passes  through  Sofia. ^  Bukarest,  the  capital  of  Roumania,  is  a 
natural  railway  center  in  the  middle  of  a  wide  plain. 

The  principal  river  ports  are  Rushchuk,  connected  also  by 
rail  with  the  sea,  and  Braila;  the  larger  seagoing  vessels,  how- 
ever, stop  at  Galatz.  The  Black  Sea  ports  are  poorly  shel- 
tered by  nature.  Varna  is  an  exposed  anchorage;  Burgas 
has  (since  1903)  an  artificial  harbor,  like  Constanza  (Kustenji), 
Greece  now  has  the  sheltered  harbor,  Port  Lagos,  on  the 
^gean,  which  was  to  have  been  connected  by  rail  with  Sofia 
and  made  the  principal  Bulgarian  outlet  by  sea.  Constanza, 
where  Trajan's  wall  from  the  Danube  formerly  reached  the  sea, 
has  become  of  European  importance  since  the  river  was  bridged 
to  give  railway  connection  with  western  Europe.  The  Germans 
in  particular  were  making  it  a  stepping  stone  for  their  expected 
commercial  conquest  of  the  Levant  until  defeated  in  the 
World  War. 

1  Following  the  gorges  of  the  Isker  and  Struma,  but  not  yet  completed 
to  Saloniki.  The  Isker  is  the  only  river  piercing  the  Balkans,  though 
a  railroad  has  now  been  laid  over  the  Trjevna  Pass  (3,360  feet),  in  spite 
of  the  abrupt  slope  on  the  south. 


XXVIII— OTHER  MEDITERRANEAN  PENINSULAS 

401.  Italy.  Venice  is  farther  north  than  Minneapolis, 
and  Rome  is  in  the  latitude  of  Chicago.  The  startling  differ- 
ence in  climate  is  due  largely  to  the  sheltering  wall  of  the 
Alps  along  the  north  of  Italy.      (§128,  Fig.  244.) 

The  Po  Valley,  once  an  arm  of  the  sea,  is  fertile  and  well 
watered.  Peninsular  Italy,  on  the  other  hand,  has  thin  and 
stony  soil  except  in  a  few  small  plains,  and  it  lies  in  the  zone 
of   summer   drought    (§52). 

A  similar  difference  exists  in  the  people.  The  north  Italian 
barely  understands  the  speech  of  the  south  Italian,  and  is 
much  the  better  educated.  Such  unequal  yokefellows  have 
created  many  difficulties  since  the  union  of  Italy  (187 1). 

402.  Forest  and  Animal  Products  in  Italy.  "Man  traverses 
the  earth  and  a  desert  results."-  This  hard  saying,  referring 
to  the  effects  of  deforestation,  is  nowhere  better  illustrated 
than  in  Italy,  where  the  forests  of  Roman  days  are  now 
represented  chiefly  by  "macchie" — scattered  shrubs  of  a 
semi-desert  character.  The  cork  oak,  however,  is  still  found 
in  Sardinia,  also  sumac  and  the  licorice  plant  in  the  south, 
while  chestnut  plantations  are  widely  distributed  at  moderate 
elevations.     Boiled  chestnuts  are  a  staple  food. 

Goats  graze  in  the  mountains;  sheep  on  the  dry  plateaus, 
especially  in  Apulia;  cattle  in  the  moister  plains  west  of  the 
Apennines,  like  the  Roman  campagna,  and  on  the  rich  irri- 
gated meadows  of  the  Po.  Imported  cattle  are  fattened  there, 
and  Parmesan  cheese  is  famous.  Even  more  important  are 
poultry  and  eggs  for  northern  markets.  - 

403.  Crop  Products  in  Italy.  The  north  is  the  more  pros- 
perous because  considerable  districts  are  irrigated  by  unfailing 
Alpine  streams.  The  food  crops  are  wheat  or  barley  in 
winter,  corn  in  summer,  rice  on  the  irrigable  lowlands,  and 
beans  as  a   substitute   for  meat.      The   staple  food   of  the 

(371) 


372 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


common  people  is  polenta,  a  sort  of  cornmeal  mush.  The 
industrial  products  are  raw  silk,  chiefly  from  the  Po  basin, 
flax  around  Cremona,  and  hemp  around  Bologna ;  also,  in  recent 
years,  sugar  beets.  Nowhere  has  the  beet-sugar  industry  grown 
more  rapidly,  since  imported  sugar  has  been  heavily  taxed. 


Fig.  244.     Italy. 

South  of  the  Apennines,  where  the  climate  is  subtropical, 
the  commercial  products  are  chiefly  wine  and  olive  oil,  of  which 
Italy  is  the  largest  producer;  south  of  Naples  and  in  Sicily, 
also  "English"  walnuts,  figs,  almonds,  citrons,  oranges,  and 
Jcmons.     Chick-peas  and  wheat  are  also  grown  in  southern 


OTHER     MEDITERRANEAN     PENINSULAS  373 

Italy,  especially  durum  or  macaroni  wheat,  though  a  crooked 
stick  still  commonly  serves  for  a  plow  as  in  Vergil's  day. 

404.  Other  Resources  of  Italy.  The  Italian  fisheries  are 
especially  rich  between  the  islands  and  the  mainland.  They 
yield  sardines  and  anchovies  which  are  both  tinned  in  oil, 
besides  tunny  and  coral,  the  latter  used  in  ornaments. 

Most  of  Italy  is  of  recent  geological  age  and  poor  in  min- 
erals; but  the  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Elba,  with  parts  of  the 
mainland,  are  fragments  of  a  very  ancient  land  (Tyrrhenia) 
now  mostly  sunk  beneath  the  sea,  which  are  rich  in  ores  of 
nearly  all  the  metals,  especially  zinc,  lead,  and  iron.  In  addi- 
tion there  are  large  sulphur  deposits  in  Sicily,  marble  at 
Carrara,  borax  in  Tuscany,  besides  small  deposits  of  petroleum 
and  lignite  in  the  Apennines.  .  Sicily  furnishes  a  large  part 
of  the  world's  sulphur.     (Fig.  90.) 

495.  Manufactures  of  Italy.  The  lack  of  abundant  coal 
has  limited  manufactures  in  the  main  to  artistic  hand  work; 
but  this  lack  is  now  being  made  good  in  part  by  the  Alpine 
streams,  which  are  increasingly  used  to  generate  electricity. 
The  principal  use  of  power  machinery  is  in  the  textile 
industry.  The  materials  used  are  chiefly  silk  at  Milan,  cotton 
at  Genoa,  wool  at  Turin  and  at  Biella  in  the  Alps.  Iron  is 
worked  to  some  extent  at  Temi,  near  lignite  beds,  and  at 
Savona  and  Elba,  which  burn  imported  coal.  Other  manu- 
factures are  macaroni  from  hard  wheat,  and  soap  from  the 
poorer  grades  of  olive  oil.  Tobacco,  salt,  and  gasoline  are 
government  monopolies. 

Technical  schools  have  been  established  in  many  districts, 
with  an  advanced  school  of  commerce  at  Venice  to  hasten  tlie 
industrial  revolution.  As  yet,  however,  it  is  impossible, 
owing  to  the  rapid  increase  of  population  in  Italy,  and  the 
limited  natural  resources,  to  fill  the  multitude  of  hungry 
mouths;  consequently  hundreds  of  thousands  of'  Italians 
emigrate  every  year.  Their  remittances  to  friends  at  home 
are  assuredly  one  of  the  chief  resources  of  Italy.  Southern 
Italy,  indeed,  largely  lives  on  America. 


374 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


406.    Transportation  Routes  and  Trade  Centers,  of  Italy. 

Like  Greece,  though  less  completely,  Italy  is  built  in  compart- 
ments separated  by  mountains  and  facing  the  sea;  but, 
unlike  Greece,  Italy  lacks  natural  harbors,  except  near  the 
ends  of  the  peninsula  where  the  mountains  descend  abruptly 
to  deep  water. 

By  virtue  of  its.  position,  Italy  is  the  heart  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean world.  It  has,  moreover,  been  commercially  regener- 
ated by  the  Suez  Canal  (1869),  Vvhich  again  sent  the  main 
current  of  oriental  trade  through  the  Mediterranean;  and  by 
the  Alpine  tunnels, ^  which  have  in  effect  removed  the  com- 
mercial barrier  of  the  Alps.  In  fact,  the  bulk  of  Italian 
commerce  now  goes  by  rail  across  the  land  frontiers. 

The  Po  system,  supplemented  by  canals,  is  navigable  to 
Valenza  and  the  Italian  Alpine  lakes.  Railways  radiating 
from  Milan,  the  greatest  industrial  center,  extend  along  both 
coasts,  and  are  connected  by  several  transverse  lines  across 
the  Apennines.  The  railways  are  fed  in  part  by  automobile 
lines  running  on  highways  built  by  the  Caesars. 

Genoa,  the  chief  port  of  Italy ,2  is  also  through  the  Alpine 
tunnels  the  Mediterranean  outlet  of  Switzerland  and  the  upper 
Rhine  Valley.  In  fact,  it  is  a  rival  of  Marseilles  for  the  com- 
merce of  central  Europe.  (Fig.  239.)  Leghorn  (Livomo),on  an 
artificial  harbor,  is  the  port  of  Florence  and  indeed,  of  all 
central  Italy  ;^  while  Naples,  on  a  beautiful  bay  under  the 

'The  Alpine  railways  are  as  follows: 


LENGTH 

ELEVATION 

CONNECTING 

OPENED 

PASS    USED 

MAIN    TUNNEL 

OF  RAILWAY 

Venice- Vienna 

1854 

Semmering 

2,970  ft. 

Venice-Munich 

1867 

Brenner 

4,470  ft. 

Turin-Lyons 

1871 

Mt.  Cenis 

7  . 6  mi . 

4,380  ft. 

Milan-Ziirich 

1882 

St.  Gothard 

9 . 3  mi. 

3.78s   ft. 

Milan-Geneva 

1906 

Simplon 

12.3  mi. 

2,313  ft- 

Trieste-Salzburg 

1907 

Hohe  Tauern 

5-3  mi. 

3.999  ft 

Italy  is  also  connected  along  the  coastal  plain  with  Marseilles,  and 
with  Trieste. 

'Opposite  the  Bocchetta  Pass  (2,550  feet)  over  the  Apennines. 
'By  way  of  the  railways  from  Bologna  and  Faenza. 


OTHER     MEDITERRANEAN     PENINSULAS 


375 


shadow  of  Vesuvius,  is  the  port  of  the  fertile  Campanian 
plain.  Venice  is  built  on  islands  in  a  landlocked  lagoon 
which  is  now  dredged  for  modem  vessels  and  equipped  with 
modem  docks  and  elevators;  and  it  is  again  after  many  days 
the  outlet  toward  the  Levant  of  northern  Italy,  It  is  also 
an  important  outlet  of  the  upper  Danube  Valley  over  the 
Brenner  Pass,  though  Genoa  and  Trieste  now  hold  most  of 
the  trans- Alpine  trade  on  which  Venice  once  grew  rich, 
Brindisi  is  the  mail  and  passenger  port  of  London,  Paris,  and 
Berlin  for  the  Levant,  India,  and  the  Far  East.     In  Sicily, 


Exports . 


Imports . 


27% 

12% 

3% 

7%  5% 

41% 

Raw  silk  and 

silk  waste 

99  million  dollars 

Textiles 
13 

•Sal 

Is 

All  others 

147 

18%            16%          12%       9%      9%      7%  3% 

26% 

United 
Kingdom 
S7  million 

dollars 

Germany 
77 

United 

Stotes 

60 

a  ,- 
g  ■* 

fa 

j2 

u 

to  ^ 

3 

3  " 
35 

4 

All  others 

128 

gtatssman'a  Tear  Book,  1909 


Fig.  245.     The  commerce  of  Italy.     Totals  in  1913  {millions  of 
dollars):  exports,  48$;  imports,  702. 

the  meeting  place  of  nations,  which  has  been  held  in  turn  by 
all  the  rulers  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  principal  modem  ports 
are  Palermo  (Greek  Panormus)  and  Messina,  the  latter  com- 
manding the  strait  where  the  ancients  fabled  that  Scylla  and 
Charybdis  lay  in  wait  for  the  unwary  mariner.  Though  often 
destroyed  by  earthquakes,  Messina  has  been  as  often  rebuilt. 

407.  Commerce  and  Colonies  of  Italy.  The  exports  of 
Italy  comprise  chiefly  raw  silk  (by  far  the  largest  item),  eggs, 
fruit,  and  other  agricultural  products,  besides  some  cotton  and 
silk  manufactures.  The  imports  are  more  varied,  including 
raw  cotton  and  other  raw  materials,  coal,  foodstuffs,  and 
nearly  all  kinds  of  manufactures.     (Fig.  245.) 

From  these  facts  it  is  evident  that  Italy,  while  making 
progress  in  manufactures,  is  still  predominantly  agricultural. 


376 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


The  outlying  possessions  of  Italy  comprise  Libya  in  North 
Africa  and  two  stretches  of  arid  coast  in  the  Horn  of  Africa 
with  the  port  of  Massawa;  the  twelve  islands  lying  near  Asia 
Minor  have  finally  been  ceded  to  Greece. 

408.  The  Iberian  Peninsula.  "Africa  begins  at  the  Pyre- 
nees." This  saying  of  the  French  applies  in  a  measure  both 
to  the  people  and  the  country. 

The  original  inhabitants  resembled  the  Berbers  of  North 
Africa,  and  there  is  also  a  strong^  infusion  of  Moorish  blood. 


long,  'wittfrom  Green »iS»*^|^JyjMgjhl*tteB'-lSf.')- 


SPAIN 

AND  PORTUGAL 

Scale 


/jj  Statute  Miles  to  one  inch 
Ilailways -       -     " 

Steamshii)  lineB -         '  ~ 

igable  rivers  Canals  ^^ 


r^-A^eutA  (Sp.) 

Fig.  246.     The  Iberian  Peninsula. 

Both  Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  except  the  Basques  in  the 
Pyrenees,  now  speak  dialects  derived  from  Latin. 

The  surface  of  the  peninsula  (Fig.  246)  resembles  Africa  in 
that  it  consists  for  the  most  part  of  a  lofty  table-land  (over 
3,000  feet),  traversed  by  mountain  ranges  which  drain  the 
winds  of  moisture.  The  coast  line  is  also  similar  to  that  of 
Africa,  in  that  it  lacks  deep  indentations.     The  climate  on  the 


OTHER    MEDITERRANEAN   PENINSULAS  377 

plateau  is  one  of  great  extremes,  and  the  summers  are  almost 
rainless,  especially  in  the  south.  The  northern  and  western 
coasts  are  the  best  watered,  and  therefore  the  most  thickly 
peopled,  aside  from  the  irrigated  districts  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

409.  Forest  and  Animal  Products  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
The  forests  have  mostly  disappeared,  under  the  combined 
attack  of  sheep,  goats,  and  charcoal  burners.  Oak  and  chest- 
nut groves  are,  however,  still  found  in  the  north,  besides  cork 
oak  and  carob  trees  on  the  southern  mountains.  Cork  is  an 
article  of  export,  especially  from  Barcelona  and  Seville. 

The  central  plateau  is  pastoral  rather  than  agricultural, 
having  for  the  most  part  a  rainfall  of  between  ten  and  twenty 
inches.  It  is  largely  a  range  country  for  flocks  of  sheep, 
which  migrate  to  the  mountains  in  summer  and  to  the  lower 
lands  in  winter.  Spain  was  long  the  home  of  the  merino 
breed,  noted  for  fine  wool.  The  moister  provinces  of  the 
northwest  also  pasture  cattle;  the  oak  and  chestnut  forests 
feed  swine ;  parts  of  the  south  raise  fine  horses  of  Arab  breed ; 
and  the  mountains  everywhere  support  goats,  asses,  and 
mules,  which  greatly  outnumber  horses.  In  recent  years 
dairy  products,  poultry,  and  eggs  have  become  commercial 
products    in    northern    Spain. 

410.  Crop  Products  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  Agriculture  is 
most  successful  in  a  zone  along  the  shore,  and  in  the  vegas 
or  plains  of  the  Tagus,  Ebro,  and  Guadalquivir.  This  agri- 
cultural belt  is  widest  in  the  northwest,  where  temperate  crops 
are  grown,  especially  wheat  and  barley,  besides  chick-peas, 
onions,  and  sugar  beets.  Since  the  loss  of  Cuba,  Spain  has 
developed  her  beet-sugar  indtistry  sufficiently  to  meet  the 
home  demand.    Other  foodstuffs,  however,  are  largely  imported. 

The  principal  agricultural  exports  are  wine,  especially  from 
Portugal  and  southern  Spain,  besides  southern  fruits  largely 
from  the  irrigated  huertas  or  gardens  between  Malaga  and 
Valencia.  The  Spanish  Peninsula  ranks  next  to  Italy  in  its 
crop   of   olives,    which    are   perhaps   most   abundant   about 


378  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Seville.  It  likewise  exports  almonds,  grown  on  sheltered 
hillsides,  raisins  and  "Malaga"  grapes  from  Almeria,  and 
oranges  and  onions  from  Valencia.  Another  export  crop, 
especially  around  Valencia,  is  saffron,  a  dye  stuff  largely  used 
in  French  silk  mills. 

Similar  to  the  Mediterranean  coast  in  climate  and  products 
are  the  Balearic  and  Canary  islands,  which  are  considered  part 
of  Spain;  and  the  Madeira  and  Azores  islands,  which  are 
considered  part  of  Portugal. 

411.  Other  Products  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  fisheries 
yield  the  usual  Mediterranean  varieties — sardine,  anchovy, 
tunny — besides  lobsters  on  the  rocky  northern  coast. 

The  mines  of  Spain  equipped  the  anny  of  Hannibal  which 
all  but  destroyed  Rome;  and  the  Spanish  Peninsula  is  still 
the  richest  mineral  region  in  Europe,  especially  in  the  great 
industrial  metals.  Iron  ore  of  rare  purity  is  abundant, 
especially  near  the  northern  coast.  Copper  is  extensively 
mined  at  Rio  Tinto,  silver-lead  at  Linares,  zinc  in  the 
northwest,  mercury  at  Almaden.  There  are  in  addition  large 
deposits  of  salt  and  sulphur;  and  the  coal  fields  exceed  in  area 
those  of  France,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Hungary.  Though 
located  near  iron  ore,  they  are  not  much  worked. 

The  manufactures  of  Spain  comprise,  aside  from  purely  local 
industries,  chiefly  tobacco  goods  (a  government  monopoly)  at 
Seville;  iron  and  glass  along  the  northern  coast;  and  textiles, 
leather,  shoes,  and  paper  at  Barcelona,  the  principal  industrial 
city  in  Spain.  The  people  of  Barcelona,  speaking  a  language 
(Catalan)  more  French  than  Spanish,  are  very  different  from 
the  proud,  military  Castilian  of  the  plateau,  or  the  guitar- 
playing  Andalusian  of  the  south;  and  they  are  far  more  re- 
doubtable competitors. 

In  Portugal  some  cotton  and  other  goods  for  the 
colonies  are  manufactured  with  imported  coal,  chiefly  at 
Lisbon. 

412.  Trade  Routes  and  Centers  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 
The  plateau,  rising  abruptly  near  the  sea,  interrupts  river 


OTHER   MEDITERRANEAN   PENINSULAS  379 

navigation^  and  renders  railroads  very  costly  to  build 
and  operate.  Moreover,  the  Pyrenees  were  uncrossed  by  rail' 
until  191 2,  when  the  first  of  three  tunnels  provided  for  by 
treaty  was  finished.  However,  all  the  railroads  differ  in 
gauge  from  the  French,  thus  forcing  both  passengers  and 
goods  to  change  cars  at  the  frontier.  The  railways  naturally 
converge  at  Madrid  in  the  center  of  the  plateau. 

Since  the  loss  of  her  American  colonies,  Spain  faces  com- 
mercially toward  the  Mediterranean,  as  Portugal  does  toward 
the  Atlantic.  The  principal  commercial  ports  are  Barcelona 
on  the  Mediterranean,  having  a  deep  harbor  commanding  the 
broad  Ebro  Valley;  Lisbon  in  the  west,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tagus;  and  Bilbao  in  the  north,  the  leading  iron  port. 
Oporto  also  ships  much  wine  (hence  port  wine)  and  Cartagena 
handles  Spanish  trade  with  Africa.^ 

The  Iberian  Peninsula,  jutting  far  into  the  Atlantic,  is  the 
final  point  of  departure  for  many  vessels  bound  to  South 
Africa,  South  America,  or  the  West  Indies.  Lisbon  is  thus 
in  a  measure  the  passenger  and  mail  port  of  Paris,  Berlin,  and 
Vienna  for  the  New  World. 

413.  Commerce  and  Colonies  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  As  a 
result  of  the  character  of  the  country,  the  leading  items  of 
export  from  Portugal  are  wine  and  cork;  while  in  the  case 
of  Spain  they  are  minerals,  wine,  and  cork.  (Fig.  247.)  In 
both,  the  imports  comprise  chiefly  grain  and  manufactures. 

Spain  established  the  first  empire  on  which  the  sun  never 
set ;  but  this  empire  has  now  shrunk  to  a  few  islands  and  pieces 
of  coast  in  West  Africa  and  in  Morocco.  The  loss  of  the 
colonies,  however,  has  proved  a  blessing  in  disguise,  causing 

1  Steam  navigation  is  possible  only  to  Santarem  on  the  Tagus, 
Seville  on  the  Guadalquivir,  Tortosa  on  the  Ebro  (by  the  aid  of  canals) ; 
small  boats,  however,  reach  Abrantes,  Cordoba,  and  Logrofio. 

2  Though  offering  lower  passes  than  the  Alps,  as  the  famous  pass  of 
Roncesvalles  (3,960  feet);  also  Perclie  (5,282  feet);  Perthus  (2,392 
feet)— the  last  two  conveniently  placed  for  Barcelona. 

2  Other  ports  are  Santander  and  Gijon,  the  port  of  the  chief  coal 
district,  in  the  north;  Cadiz,  the  outlet  of  the  Guadalquivir  Valley, 
in  the  south;   Malaga,   Almeria,   and   Valencia  on  the  Mediterranean. 


38o  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Spaniards  to  invest  their  money  at  home  and  thus  develop 
the  country. 

Andorra,  a  little  republic  in  the  Pyrenees  dating  back  to 
Charlemagne,  is  under  the  joint  protection  of  a  Spanish  bishop 
and  of  France. 

Portugal  retains,  besides  fragments  of  her  empire  in  India 

37% 32% 6%     5%  20% 


Food  and  beverag'es 
73  million  dollars 

Minerals,  metals, 
and  mfg-.  63 

T3    ti 

31 

a 

All  others 
38 

Data  from  Almanach  de  Gotha,  1909-13 

Fig.  247.     Exports  of  Spain.     Total,  five-year  average:  ig^  million 
dollars,  largely  to  Great  Britain  and  France. 

and  the  Far  East,  rich  territories  on  both  coasts  of  Africa 
The  Portuguese  colonies  are  now  in  the  main  self-supporting. 

It  is  understood  that  France  has  an  option  on  the  Spanish, 
and  England  on  the  Portuguese,  colonies,  in  case  they  shall  be 
for  sale. 

414.  British  Possessions  in  the  Mediterranean.  Malta  and 
two  adjacent  islands,  peopled  by  a  mixed  Arab-Italian  race, 
grow  early  vegetables  and  fruit  for  the  London  market. 
Having  a  fine  harbor,  situated  on  the  strait  between  Sicily 
and  Africa,  Malta  is  also  a  great  British  coaling  and  naval 
station,  as  well  as  a  port  of  call  for  merchant  vessels. 

To  the  ancients,  Ceuta  and  Gibraltar  were  known  as  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules.  Tlie  towering  rock  of  Gibraltar,  connected 
with  the  mainland  only  by  a  sand  bank  and  commanding  the 
entrance  to  the  Mediterranean,  is  now  the  strongest  fortress 
in  the  world.  Upon  it  depends,  in  no  small  measure,  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  Britisli  Empire  in  India.  Becai;se  of  its  posi- 
tion, Gibraltar  is  likewise  important  as  a  coaling  station  and 
port  of  call  on  the  Mediterranean  route. 


XXIX— AUSTRIA,  HUNGARY  AND   SWITZERLAND 

415.  Austria  and  Hungary.  Austria-Hungary  (Fig.  248) 
was  a  dual  monarchy,  pieced  together  by  war  and  the  renowned 
skill  of  the  Hapsburgs  in  matchmaking.  The  only  natural 
connecting  link  was  the  Danube,  which  drains  three-fourths  of 
the  region. 

Austria  and  Hungary  had  a  common  ruler,  and  a  Customs 
Union  whenever  they  could  agree,  but  separate  governments. 
Each  state,  moreover,  contained  hostile  races  ^  whose  mutual 
hatreds  reacted  most  unfavorably  on  industry  and  commerce. 
As  a  result  of  the  World  War  the  dual  vState  was  shattered,  five 
nations  —  Italy,  Poland,  Roumania,  Serb-Croat-Slovene  State 
(Jugo-Slavia) ,  and  Czecho-Slovakia  —  sharing  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  much  of  the  area  of  the  empire,  while  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary became  separate  states. 

416.  Products  of  the  Soil.  Forests  still  cover  perhaps  a 
third  of  the  region,  including  the  mountains,  except  along  the 
Adriatic;  and  there  is  some  export  of  timber.     (Fig.  259.) 

The  puszias  or  prairies  of  Hungary,  connecting  with  the 
steppes  of  Russia  and  of  Asia,  formed  the  highway  by  which 
various  nomadic  peoples  entered  the  country,  the  last  being 
the  Magyars  or  Hungarians  (A.  D.  898).  These  pusztas  are 
still  largely  gi\-cn  over  to  pastoral  life,  as  are  also  the  moun- 
tains. Horses  are  extensively  raised  in  Hungary,  sheep  on 
the  Bohemian  Plateau,  dairy  cattle  in  the  Alps,  swine  in  the 
oak  forests  of  Transylvania  (Roumania),  and  goats  along  the 
Adriatic.  The  poultry  industry  is  also  very  important  in  Bo- 
hemia (Czecho-Slovakia),  and  bees  are  kept  in  many  districts. 

Tillage  of  the  soil,  however,  occupies  the  larger  part  of  the 
people,  especially  in  Hungary;  and  the  railways,  by  furnishing 
a  market  for  grain,  cause  the  plow  to  encroach  year  by  year 

1  Besides  Germans  and  Hungarians  (Magyars)  there  are  Italians  in 
the  south,  Roumanians  in  the  east,  and  many  kinds  of  Slavs  —  Bohe- 
mians, Moravians,  Poles,  Ruthenians,  Slovaks,  Slovenes,  Croatians, 
and  Serbians,  besides  others  of  Isss  note. 

(381) 


382 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


upon  the  grasslands.  The  leading  field  crops  are  wheat  and 
corn  in  the  plains  of  Hungary;  rye,  oats,  and  potatoes  on  the 
highlands,  where  there  is  a  heavier  rainfall.  Temperate  fruits 
are  abundant  in  the  north  and  southern  fruits  on  the  Medi- 
terranean slope.  The  south-facing  hills  in  Hungary  also  yield 
the  noted  Tokay  wine  grape.  The  other  industrial  products 
are  raw  silk  in  southern  Tyrol  (Trentino,  Italy) ;  barley,  hops, 
and  sugar  beets  on  the  coal  fields,  and  flax  on  the  higher  plateau 


"BiJdweia 


/enna 

isburg 

S.BuB 


AXunlC; 


Scale 

0      g5       50  100  1^0  2^ 

'J'^S  Statute  MiUn  to  ime  inch 
Railwajs^—v.  Steamship  Imea 
Navigable  rlvcVa Canal.^ 


Fig.  248.     Austria- Hungary  in  1914. 


of  Bohemia;  hemp  and  tobacco  in  Hungary.  Flax,  hemp,  and 
tobacco  all  lost  ground  before  Russian  competition.  (Fig.  83.) 
417.  Fisheries  and  Minerals.  The  thousand  miles  of 
Adriatic  seacoast,  indented  and  fringed  with  islands,  support 
a  fishing  population.  These  Adriatic  seamen,  bred  to  the  sea 
almost  from  infancy,  whose  ancestors  manned  the  Roman 
navy,  are  among  the  best  in  the  world. 


AUSTRIA.  HUNGARY   AND  SWITZERLAND  383 

There  are  three  mineral  districts  in  the  region:  the  Alps, 
Bohemia,  and  the  Carpathians.  Their  metallic  wealth  rivals 
that  of  Spain,  including  iron  especially  at  Eisenerz  (Iron  Ore) , 
lead  at  Bleiberg  (Lead  Mount),  and  mercury  at  Idria,  besides 
some  silver  and  zinc.  Other  mineral  resources  are  graphite 
at  Budweis  (Fig.  224),  salt  near  Salzburg  (Saltville)  and  Cra- 
cow, petroleum  around  Lemberg  on  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Carpathians,  lignite  widely  distributed,  and  true  coal  in  the 
north  —  Bohemia,  Moravia  (Czecho-Slovakia) ,  Galicia  (Poland). 

418.  Manufactures.  To  journey  from  Belgrade  to  the 
frontier  of  Germany  is  to  survey  several  past  centuries  coexist- 
ing at  the  present  time.  Hungary  manufactures  little  except 
flour,  for  which  the  dry  climate  is  very  favorable.  The  prepara- 
tion and  sale  of  tobacco  are  reserved  to  the  government.  From 
Vienna  north  and  west,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  thriving  manu- 
facturing district.  The  leading  industries  embrace  lumber 
and  wood  pulp  along  the  rivers;  furniture  and  leather  goods, 
especially  gloves  and  shoes,  in  Vienna  and  other  cities  where 
labor  is  plentiful;  fine  steel  wares  at  Graz  and  Steyr  near  the 
iron  ore  beds ;  heavier  iron  and  steel  goods  near  the  coal  fields ; 
glass  at  Eger  and  porcelain  at  Karlsbad,  where  the  Bohemian 
forest  originally  supplied  fuel;  brewing  and  sugar  refining  at 
Pilsen  and  Prague,  also  near  the  coal  fields;  finally,  linen, 
woolen,  cotton,  and  silk  textiles  along  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Erzgebirge,  especially  around  Reichenberg. 

This  localization  of  the  textile  industry  was  due  at  first 
to  local  supplies  of  flax  and  wool,  together  with  water  power 
and  a  moist  climate.  It  increased  through  the  attraction  exer- 
cised by  skilled  labor  on  employers  seeking  a  new  location, 
and  the  proximity  of  coal.  Linen  goods  and,  to  a  lesser  extent, 
other  textiles  are  still  woven  in  the  homes  of  the  people  along 
the  banks  of  the  rapid  mountain  streams. 

In  the  production  of  pig  iron  and  steel,  this  section  of  Europe 
is  at  a  disadvantage,  because  coal  and  iron  are  not  found 
close  together.     (Fig.  268.) 


384  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

To  further  trade  interests  there  was  a  complete  system  of 
industrial  and  commercial  schools,  with  a  fine  commercial 
museum  at  Vienna. 

419.  Commerce.  Austria  exported  manufactures  toward 
the  east;  Hungary  exported  agricultural  products  toward  the 

17%  16%  13%  9%         7%       6%    4%  28% 


Fuel 

76  niillion 

dollars 

Textiles 
74 

Animal 
products 

Sugar  "<^*;i 
''0          31 

el 

5 

■gCS 

■^  t 

All  others 
132 

Data  from  Consular  Repta.;  Ann..  No.  19 

Fig,  249.     Exports  of  Austria-Hungary.     Totals  in  igoy  {millions 

of  dollars):  exports,  464;  imports,  461,  largely  foodstuffs  and 

raw  materials  for  Austria;  manufactures  for  Hungary. 

Commerce  is  mostly  with  adjacent  countries. 

west.  (Fig.  249.)  A  commercial  treaty  with  foreign  countries 
which  benefited  the  one  therefore  injured  the  other.  More- 
over, Hungary  aimed  to  restrict  Austrian  commerce  in  order 
to  develop  her  own  manufactures.  Racial  antagonism  in  the 
Empire  was  thus  reinforced  by  a  deep-seated  conflict  of  eco- 
nomic interests. 

The  great  highways  of  commerce  of  the  region  are  the 
Danube,  connected  by  a  shallow  canal  with  the  Rhine,  and  the 
Elbe-Moldau  rivers,  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Aussig  and 
for  small  craft  to  Prague.  Canals  also  connect  and  shorten 
the  rivers  flowing  through  the  Hungarian  plain.  Owing  largely 
to  these  water  ways,  the  Adriatic  ports  handled  only  about 
one-third  of  the  foreign  trade.  American  goods  frequently 
reached  Vienna  through  Hamburg. 

The  main  railways  of  the  region  radiate  from  Budapest, 
Prague,  and  Vienna,  at  the  center  of  the  principal  plains,  to  the 
gaps  and  passes  in  the  inclosing  rim  of  mountains. 

Vienna  stands  near  the  foot  of  difficult  rapids,  where  the 

Danube  comes  nearest  the  Adriatic.     It  is  the  crossroads  of 

the  ancient  trade  routes,  now  followed  by  railways,  connecting 

the  North  Sea  with  the  Black  Sea,^  and  the  BaUic  with  the 

1  Along  the  Rhine  and  Danube;  also  along  the  Elbe,  Danulie,  and 
Morava  to  (Constantinople. 


AUSTRIA,   HUNGARY  AND  SWITZERLAND  385 

Adriatic.^  Another  trade  route  was  opened  by  the  completion 
of  the  Arlberg  Tunnel,  ^  between  valleys  tributary  to  the  Dan- 
ube and  the  Rhine,  which  forms  the  eastern  gateway  to  Switzer- 
land and  therefore  to  central  and  southern  France.     (Fig.  248.) 

Trieste,  on  a  small  artificial  harbor,  by  virtue  of  its  position 
at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  the  successor  of  Venice,  is  now 
Italian.  Fiume,  a  rival  port  fostered  by  Hungary  as  an  outlet 
for  her  wheat,  by  the  fortunes  of  war  is  also  Italian.  The  moun- 
tains descend  very  abruptly  to  the  Adriatic,  imposing  heavy 
expenses  on  the  railways  connecting  with  Vienna,  Budapest,^  and 
Agram.  A  new  Alpine  tunnel  under  the  Tauern  has,  however, 
opened  an  easy  road  from  Trieste  to  southern  Germany. 
Farther  south  on  the  Adriatic  are  the  excellent  ports  of  Ragusa 
and  Cattaro,  now  reached  by  a  branch  railway  system.  ■* 

420.  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
formerly  Turkish  possessions,  annexed  by  Austria- Hungary 
(1908),  now  form  part  of  the  Serb-Croat-Slovene  State.  The 
mling  class  there  is  still  Mohammedan,  being  descended  from 
Christian  renegades  who  changed  their  religion  after  the 
Turkish  conquest  to  save  their  estates.  The  exports  are  chiefly 
lumber,  animal  products,  and  plums.  By  the  acquisition  of 
these  provinces,  Austria  advanced  more  than  half  way  to 
Saloniki  and  there  is  every  evidence  that  this  acquisition  only 
whetted  her  appetite.  At  all  events,  driven  by  commercial 
interest  she  tried  to  become  what  her  name  (Oesterreich) 
implies  —  the  Empire  of  the  East. 

Liechtenstein  is  a  purely  agricultural  principality  lying 
between  Austria  and  Switzerland.  It  was  included  in  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Customs  Union  and  administered  from 
Vienna,  though  nominally  independent. 

^Through  the  Moravian  Gate  (950  feet)  and  Semmering  Tunnel  (ele- 
vation 2,970  feet).  Railways  also  reach  Italy  by  the  Enns-Brenner 
(4,470  teet)  and  the  Pontebba  routes.  The  new  railway  under  the  Tauern 
crosses  the  divide  at  3,999  feet  elevation. 

^Elevation  4,300  feet,  length  6.37  miles. 

30ver  the  Adelsberg  Pass. 

^Following  the  Narenta  Gorge.  The  Bay  of  Gravosa,  near  Ragusa,  is 
likely  to  become  the  principal  commercial  port  on  the  Dalmatian  coast. 


386 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


421.  Switzerland.     Two  voices  Freedom  hath: 

"One  -is  of  the  sea, 
One  of  the  mountains;  each  a  migJity  Voice." — Wordsworth. 

The  words  of  the  poet  are  nowhere  more  strikingly  illus- 
trated than  in  republican  Switzerland,  divided  in  language 
(German,  French,  Italian)  and  in  religion,  but  fused  into  one 
nation  by  the  power  of  the  mountains.  From  a  confederacy 
of  three  states  or  cantons  (1291)  it  has  grown  to  twenty-two, 
forming  without  doubt  the  best  governed  republic  in  the  world. 

As  respects  surface,  Switzerland  consists  of  the  Alps  in  the 
southeast,  the  Jura  ridges  in  the  northwest,  and  between  these 
two  uplands  a  plateau  of  moderate  elevation  (1,500  feet) 
extending  from  Lake  of  Geneva  to  Lake  of  Constance. 
(Fig.  250.)  This  plateau  contains  most  of  the  population  and 
all  of  the  important  cities. 

422.  Natural  Resources  of  Switzerland.  The  forests  are 
largely  cut  away,  causing  avalanches  and  destructive  erosion 


Fig.  250.     Switzerland. 
of  the  soil,  besides  the  necessity   of    importing  lumber.     In 
recent  years,  however,  serious  attempts  have  been  made  to 
reforest  the  denuded  slopes. 


AUSTRI  A.HUNGARY    AND    SWITZERLAND  387 

Between  the  timber  line  and  the  snow  line  (6,000-9,000 
feet)  is  the  zone  of  summer  pastures,  where  the  herds  are 
driven  upward  as  summer  advances  and  downward  as  fall 
draws  near.  In  winter  they  are  fed  on  hay  and  fodder  grown 
in  the  valleys.  The  country  is  thus  pastoral  rather  than  agri- 
cultural. Cheese,  condensed  milk,  and  chocolate,  in  which 
milk  is  one  ingredient,  are  consequently  very  important 
exports.  The  railways,  by  furnishing  a  market  for  dairy 
products,  have  immensely  increased  the  value  of  these  moun- 
tain pastures. 

The  unproductive  heights  above  the  snow  line  have  also 
become  highly  profitable  by  reason  of  the  scenery.     Switzer- 

Ni-thei-lands ,  $65.61 


Sivitzerland. 

Japan 

Germany. 

Great  Britain 

France 

Italy 

India 

Spain 

Austria-Hungary. 

United  States. , 

Russia 


■19.88 


- 10.24 
•10.03 


—  7.36 
-6.29 
4.52 
4.33 
1-1.74 
12 
Data  from  Census  Bulletin.  115,  and  Commercial  Relations  of  U.S.    1912 

Fig.   251.     Exports  of  cotton  goods  per  spindle.     The   figures 

indicate  the  relation  between  the  production  and  the  export 

of  cotton  goods,  not  the  relative  amount  of  cotton  goods 

manufactured.     {Compare  Fig.  279.) 

land  is  "the  playground  of  Europe."  Some  three  million 
visitors  are  registered  there  annually,  supporting  over  1,800 
hotels  and  leaving  many  millions  of  dollars  in  the  country. 
This  source  of  income  largely  explains  the  continued  excess 
of  Swiss  imports  over  the  exports. 

Below  2,500  feet  the  soil  is  generally  cultivated,  though  much 
food  must  be  imported.  A  considerable  acreage  is  under  fruits, 
as  well  as  grains,  and  bee  keeping  is  consequently  important. 

Switzerland  is  poor  in  minerals,  producing  only  a  little 
asphaltum,  salt,  iron,  and  a  very  little  coal.     The  scarcity  of 


388  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

coal  is  a  desperately  serious  matter,  but  it  is  in  part  offset  by  the 
abundance  of  water  power,  which  the  lakes  and  glaciers  main- 
tain at  all  seasons, 

423.  Manufactures  of  Switzerland.  For  centuries  the  Swiss 
were  the  most  valued  mercenary  troops  in  Europe,  earning  thus 
the  livelihood  which  their  mountain  home  denied  them. 
The  Swiss  now  emigrate  to  some  extent  as  artisans,  but  for  the 
most  part  they  are  supported  at  home  by  manufactures. 

The  poverty  of  the  people  early  drove  them  to  house  indus- 
tries and  these  are  now  receiving  new  life  from  electricity 
which  can  be  readily  distributed  to  the  homes  of  the  workers. 
Switzerland  has  thus  largely  escaped  the  hideous  factory 
towns  and  crowded  tenement-house  districts  which  disfigure 
other  manufacturing  countries.  Notable  hand  manufactures 
are  straw  plaiting  in  the  Italian  districts,  and  wood  carving 
in  the  remote  mountain  villages. 

Swiss  manufactures  in  general  demand  little  raw  material 
but  much  skilled  labor,  and  have  in  consequence  a  large  value 
with  small  bulk.  This  explains  how  they  can  be  marketed 
in  every  comer  of  the  earth.  The  most  important  are  fine 
cotton  goods  (Fig.  251)  around  Zurich,  especially  trimmings 
and  machine  embroideries;  silk  ribbons  at  Basel;  watches  and 
clocks,  now  made  by  machinery,  in  the  barren  Jura;  leather 
goods,  especially  shoes,  at  Geneva;  finally,  chemical  and 
metal  industries  in  the  north,  which  is  more  accessible  to  coal 
and  iron  from  abroad.  Thus  aniline  dyes  are  a  specialty  at 
Basel,  aluminum  at  Schaffhausen,  and  fine  machinery  in  the 
Zurich  district. 

The  prosperity  of  manufactures  in  Switzerland  is  an  example 
of  what  man  can  accomplish  with  but  slight  aid  from  nature. 
It  is  due  partly  to  water  power,  but  quite  as  much  to  the 
people  who  have  supplemented  by  intelligence,  energy,  and 
thrift  the  slender  gifts  of  nature.  Thus  they  have  established 
a  splendid  system  of  industrial  and  commercial  education, 
culminating  in  the  great  Federal  Polytechnicum  at  Zurich 
and  seven  higher  Schools  of  Commerce. 


AUSTRIA,    HUNGARY    AND    SWITZERLAND  389 

424.  The  Commerce  of  Switzerland.  Switzerland  is,  as 
Dubois  tersely  says,  "badly  endowed  but  well  situated." 
Three  of  the  principal  countries  of  Europe  corner  on  the  Alps, 
each  with  a  great  river  flowing  from  this  common  center. 
These  river  valleys  form  natural  trade  routes. 

Switzerland,  however,  lacks  seacoast  and  large  navigable 
rivers;  and  it  has  no  natural  exits  except  by  the  Rhone  and 
Rhine  gorges,  by  ferry  across  Lake  of  Constance,  or  by  diffi- 
cult mountain  passes.  Immense  labor  in  building  highways, 
bridges,  railways,  and  tunnels  has,  therefore,  been  necessary. 
Nevertheless,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  Switzerland  now  ranks 
near  the  top  in  railway  mileage.     (Fig.  289.) 

Since  prehistoric  days,  when  the  lakes  were  fringed  with 
villages  built  on  piles,  the  Swiss  lakes  have  been  the  active 
centers  of  Swiss  life.  Geneva,  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name, 
near  the  gap  between  the  Jura  and  the  Alps,  with  railways 
dow^n  the  Rhone  Valley  to  Marseilles  and  into  Italy  by  the 
Mont  Cenis  and  Simplon  tunnels,  is  the  natural  commercial 
center  of  the  south.  Basel  in  like  manner  commands  the 
Rhine  Valley  and  the  Belfort  Gap  toward  Paris.  From  Basel 
a  direct  line  leads  through  the  Loetschberg  Tunnel  to  the 
Simplon  and  Italy.  Finally  Zurich,  the  metropolis,  stands 
where  the  Berlin-Genoa  line  through  the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel 
crosses  the  Paris- Vienna  line  through  the  Belfort  Gap,  the 
Arlbcrg  Tunnel,  and  the  Engadine  Valley.^ 

20% 17%  '13%  8%        6%    4%'%'t  30% 


Cotton 
manufactures' 
0  million  dollars 


Silk 

manufactures 

43 


All  others 
71 


Data  from  Altnanach  de  Gotha    1909-13 


Fig.  252.     Exports  of  Sivitzerland.      Total,  five-year  averages  {millions  of 

dollars):  exports,  24Q,  largely  to  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  France; 

imports,  358.6,  chiefly  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials. 

In  view  of  its  industries,  Switzerland  naturally  exports 
chiefly  textiles  and  other  manufactures,  besides  dairy  products, 
but  imports  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials.     (Fig.  252.) 

1  The  Albula  Tunnel  (4.3  miles)  opened  (1903)  another  gateway  be- 
tween tributaries  of  the  upper  Rhine  and  upper  Danube  (Engadine  Valley). 


XXX— FRANCE 

425.  The  French  Nation.  The  French  people  are  generally 
conceded  to  be  among  the  most  patriotic  and  united  in  Europe. 
They  have  an  artistic  instinct  which  imparts  beauty  to  what- 
ever they  touch,  and  great  thrift  which  enables  them  to 
prosper  in  spite  of  a  huge  standing  army,  a  public  debt  without 
parallel,  and  enormous  taxes.  But  they  are  prone  to  invest 
their  money  in  government  bonds  rather  than  industrial  enter- 
prises, and  to  educate  their  children  for  government  positions 
rather  than  for  independent  careers.  Trade,  moreover,  appar- 
ently stands  in  something  of  the  same  ill  repute  as  before  the 
Revolution,  when  nobles  were  forbidden  to  engage  in  it. 

426.  Surface  and  Climate  of  France.  France  (Fig.  253), 
only  a  third  larger  than  California,  has  almost  as  great  a 
variety  of  soil  and  climate  as  the  whole  United  States. 

The  south  and  east  are  rugged;  the  northwestern  half  lies 
in  the  great  European  plain.  A  tongue  of  lowland  also  pene- 
trates between  the  uplands  of  Brittany  and  the  Central 
Plateau,  as  far  as  the  Pyrenees.  South  of  Bordeaux  this  low- 
land has  been  invaded  by  the  devastating  march  of  sand 
dunes,  driven  by  the  west  wind;  but  these  have  finally  been 
checked  by  planted  forests. 

Paris  is  farther  north  than  Duluth,  and  all  France  farther 
north  than  Chicago ;  but  France,  lying  open  to  the  west  winds 
from  the  Atlantic,  has  a  mild,  moist  climate  like  our  own 
Pacific  coast  from  San  Francisco  to  Seattle.  (Fig.  57.)  The 
Mediterranean  slope,  however,  is  subtropical,  especially 
around  Nice,  which  is  sheltered  from  north  winds  by  the 
mountains  (§52). 

427.  Forest  and  Animal  Products  in  France.  The  spread- 
ing forests  which  Caesar  found  in  Gaul,  in  whose  depths  the 
Druids  performed  their  mysterious  rites,  survive  only  in  scat- 
tered patches.     Timber  is  consequently  an  article  of  import. 

(390) 


FRANCE 


391 


The  uplands  pasture  many  sheep  and,  in  the  dry  southeast, 
also  goats  which  maintain  the  kid-glove  industry  of  Grenoble. 
Swine  are  numerous  in  the  chestnut  groves  which  clothe  the 
hillsides  at  moderate  elevations.  In  the  northwest,  where 
the  rains  from  the  west  winds  maintain  abundant  pasturage, 
cattle  and  horses  are  extensively  raised  for  market.     This 


Fig.  253.     France. 


district  likewise  produces  dairy  and  poultry  products  for 
export  to  England.  France  is  also  an  important  honey- 
producing  country,  especially  around  Narbonne. 

The   Norman   breed   of  horses,   which   formerly  bore  the 
heavily-armored  knights  through  the  desperate  hand-to-hand 


392  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

encounters    of   the   Middle   Ages,    now   furnishes    fine  draft 
animals,  as  well  as  the  best  cavalry  and  artillery  horses.* 

428.  Crop  Products  of  France.  France  is  before  all  else 
an  agricultural  country.  In  fruit  and  flowers  France  holds 
first  rank,  producing  all  temperate  and  nearly  all  southern 
varieties  in  profusion.  Commercially  important  are  the  vine 
which  thrives  on  warm,  south-facing  slopes;  apples  and  pears 
grown  for  cider  along  the  English  Channel;  prunes  around 
Bordeaux;  olives  and  walnuts  on  the  Mediterranean  slope; 
flowers  for  the  preparation  of  perfumes  around  Nice;  citrons 
in  Corsica.  Brandy  is  distilled  from  wine  at  Cognac;  alcohol 
for  industrial  purposes  is  made  from  potatoes,  beets,  molasses, 
and  cider  chiefly  in  the  north. 

In  the  production  of  wheat  France  was  exceeded,  in  Europe, 
only  by  Russia.  (Fig.  43.)  The  other  important  cereals 
are  oats  in  the  north,  corn  in  the  south,  rye  and  buckwheat  on 
the  uplands.  Along  the  English  Channel,  however,  cereals 
have  been  abandoned  in  favor  of  early  potatoes  and  other 
vegetables  and  berries,  which  reach  the  London  market  by 
special  boats  and  trains.  Other  French  specialties  are  mush- 
rooms and  truffles,  the  latter  appearing  spontaneously  near  a 
variety  of  oak  in  the  region  tributary  to  Bordeaux.  Vege- 
tables, like  fish  and  fruit,  are  extensively  tinned  for  export. 
These  command  high  prices  because  of  superior  preparation. 

The  principal  industrial  crop  is  the  sugar  beet.  This  was 
introduced  by  Napoleon  I  in  the  hope  of  rendering  France 
independent  of  the  British  West  Indies  which  were  at  that 
time  the  chief  source  of  cane  sugar.  Sugar  beets  are  now 
extensively  grown  on  the  Anzin  coal  field  near  the  Belgian 
border.  Other  important  industrial  products,  though  more 
or  less  decadent  by  reason  of  foreign  competition,  are  raw 
silk  in  the  Rhone  Valley,  flax  and  hemp  in  northern  and  west- 
ern France,  tobacco  (a  government  monopoly)  around  Toulouse, 
oil  seeds  (colza)  and  dyestuffs  (madder,  saffron)  in  various 
districts. 

'  Shalrr,  Ihimcsticaicd  Animals. 


FRANCE  393 

Taken  all  in  all,  France  is  by  nature  the  richest  agricultural 
country  in  Europe;  but  owing  to  the  small  size  of  farms  the 
methods  of  agriculture  are  in  some  districts  incredibly  crude.* 

429.  Other  Natural  Resources  of  France.  France  is  second 
only  to  England,  among  the  European  nations,  in  her  fisheries. 
This  industry  is  subsidized  by  the  government  in  order  to  pro- 
vide seamen  for  the  navy.  Its  chief  seat  is  Brittany,  where 
the  rocky  soil  and  broken  coast  line  resemble  our  own  New 
England.  Nantes,  however,  is  the  commercial  center  of  the 
sardine  fishery,  and  the  Arcachon  lagoon,  near  Bordeaux,  of 
oyster  culture.    (Fig.  256.) 

With  the  restoration  of  Alsace-Lorraine  and  the  control  of 
parts  of  the  vSarre  basin,  France  is  now  rich  in  many  minerals. 
It  is,  indeed,  the  largest  producer  of  bauxite  (an  ore  of  alumi- 
num), asphaltum  and,  next  to  the  United  States,  of  gypsum; 
and  is  also  an  important  source  of  antimony  and  phosphate 
rock.  Previous  to  the  World  War,  France  had  only  limited 
quantities  of  the  great  industrial  metals  (iron,  copper,  zinc, 
lead)  and  of  mineral  fuels.  (Fig.  138.)  Coal,  indeed,  occurs 
in  the  north  of  old  France  and  in  a  belt  surrounding  the 
Central  Plateau;  but  here  only  in  Le  Creusot  district  does  it 
lie  near  iron  ore.  These  coal  beds  are,  moreover,  small,  deep- 
lying,  often  highly  tilted,  and  therefore  expensive  to  work. 

France,  however,  possesses  immense  reserves  of  power  in  her 
mountain  streams.  The  glaciers  are  mines  of  "white  coal" 
which,  unlike  the  product  of  the  earth,  does  not  waste  away 
in  the  using  but  renews  itself  from  year  to  year.  Already  a 
French  industrial  district  has  sprung  up  in  the  heart  of  the  Alps. 

430.  The  Manufactures  of  France.  French  export  manu- 
factures are,  like  the  Swiss,  mainly  such  as  have  a  relatively 
large    value    in    small    bulk.     Artistic    design,    multiplying 

'"The  plows  and  harrows,  with  few  exceptions,  are  of  primitive 
style;  grass  is  cut  only  with  scythes  and  grain  with  sickles;  raking  is 
done  with  hand  rakes;  seeds  are  sown  broadcast;  threshing  is  accom- 
plished by  small  hand  flails,  or  in  some  cases  by  tramping;  and 
winnowing  is  often  effected  by  a  rustic  sieve  and  a  fresh  breeze." 
(Commercial  Relations  of  the  U.  S.,  1902.)  This  description,  however, 
does  not  apply  to  the  richer  and  more  progressive  districts. 

17 


394  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

many  fold  the  value  of  the  product,  is  the  true  basis  of  French 
manufacturing  prosperity.  The  first  place  is  held  by  textiles, 
including  silks,  especially  fine  hand-woven  goods  at  Lyons,  and 
ribbons  at  St.  Etienne;  woolens  around  Roubaix,  near  coal 
and  accessible  to  Argentine  wool;  worsted  goods  at  Reims, 
among  the  sheep  walks  of  Champagne;  cottons  on  the  lower 
Seine,  especially  at  Rouen  which  uses  American  cotton  and 
British  coal,  and  also  along  the  foot  of  the  Vosges,  which 
afford  water  power;  linen  at  Lille  in  the  principal  flax  dis- 
trict; hemp  at  Le  Havre  and  jute  at  Dunkirk,  where  the 
imported  materials  are  landed;  finally,  machine-made  lace 
at  Calais. 

The  mineral  industries  are  naturally  found  near  the  coal 
fields.  Examples  are  iron  manufactures  at  Le  Creusot  and 
St.  Etienne;  glass  at  St.  Etienne  and  Anzin;  porcelain  at 
Limoges,  where  pure  kaolin  lies  close  to  coal.  Fine  wares  are 
also  produced  in  other  districts  where  the  trade  has  been  long 
established,  notably  Sevres  china,  St.  Gobain  mirrors,  Nancy 
hardware,  Besanjon  watches.  A  recent  industry  of  great 
importance  is  the  manufacture  of  automobiles. 

Other  articles  largely  exported  are  leather  goods,  fine 
paper,  soap,  and  candles.  These  are  manufactured  on  a  large 
scale  at  Marseilles,  the  world's  greatest  market  for  oil  seeds. 

Fully  a  fourth  of  the  manufactures  of  France  come  from 
Paris,  including  articles  of  art  and  luxury  such  as  bronze 
goods,  jewelry,  elegant  furniture,  carpets.  Gobelin  tapestries, 
shoes,  dresses,  and  millinery.  For  this  reason  Paris  is  the 
Mecca  of  women  the  world  over. 

431.  Trade  Routes  and  Centers  of  France.  The  rivers  of 
France,  radiating  from  the  Central  Plateau,  cause  the  routes 
of  trade  and  travel  to  converge  and  eross.  This  fact  has 
favored  the  political  and  commercial  unity  of  France.  The 
larger  rivers  are  generally  navigable,  though  the  Rhone  is  too 
swift  and  the  Loire  too  fluctuating  for  regular  use.  The  rivers 
are,  moreover,  linked  together,  and  connected  with  the  Rhine, 
by  an  extensive  system  of  canals  operated  in  part  by  steam 


5 


FRANCE 


395 


and  electric  traction.  Boats  can  pass  from  Le  Havre  or 
Bordeaux  to  Marseilles ;  cotton  is  carried  by  canal  to  the  foot 
of  the  Vosges.  The  internal  water  ways  move  about  a 
fourth  of  the  total  tonnage.     (Fig.  253.) 

The  great  national  highways,  almost  deserted  after  railways 
were  built,  have  been  restored  to  honor  and  commercial  useful- 
ness by  the  automobile. 

The  railways  radiate  mainly  from  Paris  to  the  seaports  and 
frontiers.  An  immense  transit  trade  from  England  and 
Belgium  crosses  the  "French  Peninsula"  by  way  of  the  Seine  or 


■CourtPBy  of  the  North" 


Fig.  254.     Part  of  the  water  front  in  the  port  of  Marseilles. 

Garonne  and  the  Rhone  valleys  to  Marseilles.     The  railways 

across  the  land  frontiers  are  also  of  international  importance,' 

iThe  principal  international  lines  are:  Paris-Berlin,  along  the  edge 
of  the  great  European  plain;  Paris- Vienna,  one  going  by  Zabern 
Pass  in  the  Vosges  and  the  Danube  (Orient  Express  route),  another 
by  Belfort  Gap  and  the  Arlberg  Tunnel;  Paris-Turin  through  the 
Mont  Cenis  Tunnel;  Paris-Milan  through  the  Simplon  Tunnel; 
Marseilles-Genoa  along  the  coast;  one  into  Spain  through  the  tunnel 
leading  toward  Saragossa,  and  two  past  the  ends  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Another  from  Toulouse  through  the  Pyrenees,  provided  for  by  treaty, 
will  render  Barcelona  commercially  a  French  seaport. 


396 


COM  MERC  I A  L  GEOGRA  PH  Y 


especially  those  connecting  Paris  with  Berlin  and  Petrograd, 
Vienna  and  Constantinople,  Milan,  Madrid,  and  Lisbon. 

The  French  coast  is  flat  and  devoid  of  natural  harbors,  other 
than  river  ports,  except  in  the  peninsulas  of  Brittany  and 
Toulon.  The  principal  seaport  is  Marseilles  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Rhone.  (Fig.  254.)  This  is  the  outlet  of  France 
toward  Africa,  Asia,  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the  French  colonies. 
Le  Havre,  the  port  of  Paris,  is  the  sea-gate  of  France  toward 
America,  importing  chiefly  cotton,  coffee,  and  other  tropical 
products.  Part  of  its  trade  has,  however,  migrated  up  stream 
with  the  deepening  of  the  Seine  to  Rouen  (twenty-two  feet) 
and  Paris  (ten  feet).  Dunkirk,  being  nearest  the  Roubaix 
textile  district,   is   third  in  value  of  goods  handled  and  is 

52%  28%  12%     8% 


Exports  by  classes 

Manufactures 
668  million  dollars 

Raw 

materials 

Food 

stuffs 
157 

?  2 
"^ 

3G1 

601                                     21% 

T9% 

Raw  materials 

Food  stuffs 
3H 

ManuTac- 

883  million  dollars 

287 

Data  from  Statesman's  Year  Book,  1912-14 


Fig.   255.     Commerce  of  France.     Totals,  five-year   averages    {millions  of 

dollars):  exports,    1,28-/,  largely  to  Great  Britain,    Belgium, 

Germany;  imports,  1,484,  largely  from  Great  Britain, 

United  States,  and  Germany. 

growing  rapidly.  It  imports  chiefly  wool  and  jute.  The  trade 
of  southwestern  France  is  divided  between  Bordeaux,  the  prin- 
ci[)al  port  for  French  wines  and  olive  oil,  with  its  out-port 
Pauillac;  Nantes,  which  has  secured  fairly  deep  water  by  a 
ship  canal,  witli  its  out-port,  St.  Nazaire;  and  the  ancient 
Huguenot  strongliold,  La  Rochelle  (La  Pallice).  The  ferry- 
pcjrts  on  the  Englisli  Channel  are  chiefly  Calais,  Boulogne, 
and  Dieppe. 

France  lies  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  land  hemisphere, 
fronting  the  three  most- frequented  seas.  Its  sea  ways  to 
eastern  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Soutli  America  are  shorter, 
while  to  North  America  they  are  little  longer,  than  those  of 


FRANCE  397 

Great  Britain.     So  far  as  position  is  concerned,  France  is, 
therefore,  even  better  placed  for  commerce  than  is  Great  Britain. 

432.  The  Character  of  French  Commerce.  Despite  its 
position  and  transportation  facilities,  however,  France  is 
almost  stationary  in  population  and  commerce  (Fig.  255), 
while  the  merchant  marine  depends  on  government  bounties. 
The  reason  is  partly  the  crushing  burden  of  taxes,  but 
largely  the  character  of  French  industry. 

France  exports,  for  the  most  part,  manufactured  goods 
which  are  articles  of  luxury,  importing  in  return  raw  materials 
and  certain  classes  of  foodstuffs.  The  market  for  luxuries 
in  prosperous  times  is  fairly  steady,  and  the  rich  will  always 
buy  them;  but  it  is  limited  compared  to  the  market  for 
necessities.  French  vessels,  moreover,  lacking  bulky  outgoing 
cargoes,  are  unable  to  compete  on  even  terms  with  British 
ships.  For  these  reasons  France,  though  prosperous,  has  been 
unable  to  contend  for  commercial  supremacy  against  those 
nations  which,  being  better  endowed  with  coal  and  iron,  were 
able  to  manufacture  for  the  millions. 

433.  France  Beyond  the  Sea.  To  make  good  the  loss  of 
Alsace-Lorraine  (187 1)  and  offset  in  some  measure  the  lack 
of  more  land  and  coal  at  home,  France  acquired  a  new  colonial 
empire  second  only  to  that  of  England. 

In  Europe  France  has  only  a  share  in  the  protectorate  over 
Andorra  and  a  virtual  protectorate  over  the  small  principality 
of  Monaco — the  gambling  den  of  Europe.  Corsica,  though 
Italian  in  speech,  has  been  incorporated  with  France. 

The  principal  possessions  of  France  are  the  bulk  of  West 
Africa  (from  Algeria  to  the  Congo),  Madagascar,  and  Indo- 
China.  These  French  colonies  are  larger  than  the  United 
States  and  have  a  population  exceeding  •60,000,000.  Their 
annual  cost  to  France,  though  large,  is  decreasing;  their 
resources,  on  the  other  hand,  show  a  rapid  increase.  In 
several,  the  language  and  institutions  of  France  have  struck 
firm  root;  and  no  one  who  has  ever  visited  Quebec  doubts  that 
the  French  race  has  some  remarkable  staying  qualities. 


XXXI— GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND 
"No  commerce  enriches  a  nation  like  the  commerce  of  the  sea." 

434.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Great  Britain  though 
beset  by  powerful  rivals,  is  still  the  greatest  commercial 
nation  in  the  world.     (Fig.  238.) 

The  British  people,  compounded  of  Celt,  Anglo-Saxon,  Dane, 
and  Norman,  have  long  been  distinguished  for  independence, 
energy,  and  tenacity;  and  the  British  government,  though  a 
monarchy  in  name,  is  singularly  responsive  to  the  popular 
will.  Neither  king  nor  lords  dare  long  oppose  any  policy 
supported  by  a  substantial  majority  of  the  Commons. 

The  British  Isles  lie  farther  north  than  the  United  States, 
Glasgow  nearly  in  the  latitude  of  Sitka.  The  climate  is  mild 
and  moist,  however,  owing  to  the  Atlantic  and  the  prevail- 
ing west  winds.  This  climate  favors  moderate  but  sustained 
activity  of  body  and  mind.  Field  work,  moreover,  is  seldom 
interrupted  by  winter,  or  navigation  by  ice,  though  grain 
sometimes  fails  to  ripen  because  of  cloudy  weather. 

The  mountains,  continuations  of  the  Scandinavian  system, 
traverse  the  north  and  west,  while  the  east  and  south  are 
severed  portions  of  the  north  European  plain.  The  larger 
island,  therefore,  faces  commercially  toward  the  continent 
and  the  Orient.  Ireland  on  the  other  hand — a  saucer-shaped 
plain  with  a  broken  mountain  rim — "turns  its  back  on  Eng- 
land," as  its  main  river,  the  Shannon,  enters  the  sea  on 
the  west. 

435.  Products  ef  the  Soil  in  the  British  Isles.  No  other 
great  nation  is  so  dependent  on  other  lands  for  food.  If  the 
supplies  from  oversea  were  interrupted.  Great  Britain  would 
starve  in  less  than  six  months. 

The  moist  climate  favors  grass  and  roots  rather  than  grain. 
The  mountains  and  southern  chalk  hills  or  downs  are  also  poor 

(398) 


GREAT     BRITAIN     AND    IRELAND  399 

in  Soil.  The  country  is  thus  by  nature  pastoral  rather  than 
agricultural;  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  the  chief  wool- 
producing  country  in  Europe.  Moreover,  since  the  repeal  of 
the  tax  on  imported  grain  (1849),  grass  has  rapidly  gained 
on  the  plow  lands ;  and  by  reason  of  Australian  and  Argentinian 
competition,  even  the  grazing  industry  has  somewhat  declined, 
much  land  especially  in  the  highlands  being  abandoned  to 
grouse  and  deer.  Cattle  are,  however,  fairly  numerous  on  the 
damper  western  slopes,  sheep  on  the  drier  hills  or  downs 
of  the  south  and  east,  while  the  Channel  Islands  are  noted 
for  fine  breeds  of  dairy  cattle,  notably  Jerseys.  Ireland,  the 
"Emerald  Isle"  where  the  pasturage  is  unfailing,  ships 
butter  and  bacon  to  England. 

Forests  have  practically  disappeared,  except  in  pleasure 
parks  and  game  preserves. 

The  land  is  mostly  held  in  great  estates,  and  worked  by 
tenants  who  pay  fixed  cash  rentals.  Having  a  right  to  what- 
ever they  produce  in  excess  of  the  rent,  they  farm  the  land 
very  intensively.  The  crops  are  chiefly  oats  and  potatoes; 
with  barley,  wheat,  and  fruits  toward  the  east  and  south;  flax 
in  the  north  of  Ireland,  early  vegetables  in  the  Channel  and 
Scilly  islands. 

436.  The  Fisheries  of  the  British  Isles.  A  general  eleva- 
tion of  600  feet  would  again  carry  the  edge  of  the  continent  far 
beyond  Ireland.  This  immense  expanse  of  shallow  water 
surrounding  the  British  Isles  serves  as  the  feeding  and  spawn- 
ing ground  of  myriads  of  fish.  (Fig.  256.)  Great  Britain  is 
thus,  by  virtue  of  its  position,  the  greatest  fishing  nation  in 
Europe. 

Fish  that ' '  school ' '  and  approach  the  surface ,  such  as  mackerel , 
herring,  and  sardines,  are  taken  either  in  seines  or  drift  nets. 
Ground  fish  such  as  cod  are  still  taken  on  hand  lines  inshore, 
and  halibut  by  this  method  everywhere;  but  deep-sea  fishing 
is  mostly  with  trawl  nets,  usually  one  hundred  by  fifty  by 
four  feet  in  size,  which  are  dragged  along  the  sea  bottom  at 
night,  sometimes  bringing  up  five  tons  of  fish  at  a  haul.     The 


400 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


fishing  vessels,  both  "liners"  and  "trawlers,"  are  now  largely- 
propelled   by   steam.     Being  equipped   with   ice,   and   wells 

through  which  the 
sea  water  circu- 
lates, they  bring 
fresh  fish — even 
live  fish — from  the 
Faroe  Islands  and 
Iceland,  where  the 
largest  catches  are 
now  made. 

The  use  of  larger 
vessels  and  of 
steam  has  concen- 
trated the  fishing 
industry  in  a  few 
ports  having  excel- 
lent railway  connec- 
tions; notably  Ply- 
mouth in  the  south. 
Great  Yarmouth 
and  Grimsby  in  the 
east,  and  Aberdeen 
in  Scotland. 
Grimsby,  near  the 
Dogger -Bank,  has 
thus  become  the  greatest  fishing  port  in  the  world. 

The  seamen  bred  in  the  fisheries  are  the  main  factor,  next 
to  coal  and  iron,  in  maintaining  the  British  merchant  marine 
— the  real  backbone  of  Britisli  commercial  supremacy. 

437.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  British  Isles.  The  tin  of 
Cornwall  drew  the  Phoenicians  to  Britain  several  thousand 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  These  tin  mines  are  still  in 
operation,  though  the  adjacent  copper  veins  are  practically 
exhausted.  There  is  also  a  considerable  output  of  lead  and  zinc 
in  Wales,  and  of  iron  ore  chiefly  around  Middlesbrough  and 


Fig.  256.     Principal  European  fishing  banks. 


GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    IRELAND  401 

Barrow-in-Furness.     Much    iron   ore,  however,  is   imported 
from  Spain  and  Sweden  to  feed  the  British  furnaces. 

The  true  wealth  of  Britain  is  in  her  coal  beds,  which  con- 
stitute her  "Black  Indies,"  richer  by  far  than  the  India  of 
Clive  and  Hastings.  The  coal  fields  lie  chiefly  on  the  flanks 
of  the  Pennine  Range,  which  forms  the  principal  divide  in  Eng- 
land; in  southern  Wales,  where  the  coal  is  largely  anthra- 
cite; and  in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland.  (Fig.  238.)  Ireland 
has  only  a  very  little  coal  of  inferior  quality,  and  largely  uses 
peat  for  fuel.  Lack  of  coal  is  the  great  economic  defect  of 
Ireland,  as  of  Italy.  The  British  coal  fields  exceed  in  area 
those  of  all  the  rest  of  Europe  outside  of  Russia. 

438.  The  Rise  of  British  Manufactures.  Throughout  the 
Middle  Ages,  Great  Britain  was  almost  exclusively  a  pastoral 
and  agricultural  country.  At  the  close  of  that  period,  the 
extension  of  sheep  runs,  driving  many  tenants  from  the  soil, 
was  one  cause  that  helped  to  plant  the  English  race  in  America. 

Manufactures  profited  from  the  immigration  of  skilled 
artisans  from  France  during  the  religious  wars  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  still  more  from  England's  conquest  of  a  vast 
colonial  empire  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies. The  demand  for  manufactured  goods  in  these  colo- 
nies doubtless  had  some  connection  with  the  series  of  great 
inventions  in  England — for  example,  the  spinning  jenny  and 
power  loom — which  have  revolutionized  the  industry  of  the 
world.  They  gave  Great  Britain  a  practical  monopoly  of 
production  by  machinery;  and  this  monopoly  was  confirmed 
for  more  than  a  century  by  the  use  of  steam,  owing  to  the 
wealth  of  Great  Britain  in  coal  and  iron.  Napoleon  I  forbade 
trade  with  England,  but  was  driven  to  violate  his  own  edict  in 
order  to  clothe  his  army.  Only  within  the  last  generation 
has  any  nation  been  able  seriously  to  compete  with  England 
in  machine-made  goods. 

439.  The  Textile  Industry.  The  textile  industry  was  the 
first,  and  is  still  the  most  important,  branch  of  British  manu- 
factures.    (Fig,  279.)     Wool  is  woven  chiefly  on  the  eastern 


402  COMMilRCIAL     GEOGRAPHV 

slope  of  the  Pennine  Range,  at  Bradford  and  Leeds  and  also 
in  Scotland,  both  being  sheep-raising  districts  containing 
large  coal  fields;  cotton  in  the  west  around  Manchester  over 
another  coal  field,  where  the  climate  is  moist  (which  decreases 
the  breakages  of  thread  in  the  processes  of  manufacture)  and 
American  cotton  is  easily  accessible.  Linen,  again,  is  worked 
at  Belfast  in  the  flax-growing  region;  linen  products  (shirts, 
collars,  cuffs)  not  far  away  at  Londonderr}'-;  and  silk  in  the 
midlands  at  Derby,  where  the  water  is  suitable  for  dyeing. 
Dundee,  being  favorably  located  for  getting  flax  from  the 
Baltic,  formerly  manufactured  linen  almost  exclusively,  but 
turned  to  jute  when  the  supply  of  Russian  flax  was  cut  off  by 
the  Crimean  War  (1854-56)  and  is  now  the  principal  center  of 
jute  manufacture  in  Europe.  (Fig.  225.)  In  Ireland  and  the 
northern  islands  homespun  cloth  is  still  woven  on  hand  looms. 
Finally,  some  localizations  of  industry  are  apparently  due 
merely  to  an  early  start  and  acquired  momentum — for  example, 
the  manufacture  of  carpets  at  Kidderminster  and  Wilton 
and  the  manufacture  of  lace  and  hosiery  at  Nottingham. 

440.  Grain  and  Sugar  Industries.  Other  industries  employ- 
ing agricultural  materials  are  the  distillation  of  barley  whisky 
in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  considerable  barley  is  grown; 
flour  milling  at  Liverpool,  where  American  wheat  is  landed; 
and  sugar  refining  in  all  the  principal  ports  which  receive 
cargoes  of  raw  sugar.  The  development  of  flour  milling  in 
west  England,  despite  the  damp  climate  (which  renders 
more  difficult  the  production  of  high-grade  flour)  has  been 
sufficient  to  decrease  the  imports  of  American  flour.  It  is 
no  doubt  due  to  the. fact  that  Liverpool  is  the  greatest  market 
in  the  world  for  wheat,  receiving  supplies  at  all  seasons. 

441.  Mineral  Industries.  The  iron  industry  began  near 
great  forests  which  furnished  charcoal,  but  now  persists  only 
where  coal  is  available.  Blast  furnaces  for  the  smelting  of 
ore  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Middlesbrough  and  Barrow-in- 
Furness  districts,  containing  both  coal  and  iron,  and  on 
the   south  Wales  coal    field,  where  Spanish  ore  is  smelted. 


GREAT     BRITAIN     AND     IRELAND  403 

Birmingham,  near  the  ancient  forest  of  Arden,  is,  however, 
the  principal  hardware  center.  From  Birmingham  west 
stretches  the  "Black  Country,"  shrouded  with  smoke  by 
day  and  lit  with  flashes  of  fire  by  night  from  the  countless  iron 
works.  Sheffield  specializes  in  cutlery,  having  excellent  sand- 
stone for  grinding.  Ship  building  centers  chiefly  on  the  Clyde 
at  Glasgow,  and  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  and  Belfast,  all  having 
easy  access  to  coal  and  iron.  Belfast  indeed  obtains  coal  by 
sea  more  cheaply  than  inland  towns  within  fifty  miles  of  the 
coal  fields.  Other  metals  —  tin,  lead,  zinc,  copper  —  are 
smelted  at  Swansea,  near  the  Welsh  coal  field  and  accessible 
to  the  tin  of  Cornwall,  though  the  ores  are  now  mostly 
imported. 

Glass  and  pottery  are  also  made  on  the  coal  fields :  glass  at 
Birmingham  and  St.  Helens;  porcelain  at  Derby,  Worcester, 
and  in  the  district  around  Stoke-upon-Trent,  called  "The 
Potteries."  Chemical  works  are  found  chiefly  in  the  seaports, 
accessible  to  imported  materials. 

442.  Situation  and  Transportation  Facilities.  To  the 
ancients,  Britain  lay  at  the  edge  of  the  world,  bordered 
by  the  unknown  "Sea  of  Darkness."  The  voyage  of 
Columbus  suddenly  placed  it  in  the  center  of  the  world. 
America  was  thus  the  making  of  England.  Moreover,  the 
"silver  thread"  of  the  Channel,  preventing  invasion  by  land, 
left  England  unburdened  by  a  great  standing  army,  and  there- 
fore free  to  seek  her  fortune  on  the  ocean.  This  advantage 
more  than  offset  the  even  more  central  location  of  France. 

The  coast  line,  deeply  indented  by  estuaries  and  bays, 
favors  maritime  pursuits.  Moreover,  the  high  tides  carry 
navigable  depths  well  up  the  rivers. 

The  rivers  are  connected  by  an  extensive  network  of  canals 
built  during  the  two  generations  (i  765-1830)  before  the  intro- 
duction of  railroads;  but  most  of  them  are  navigable  only  by 
small  canal  boats  and  many  are  controlled  by  railroads,  which 
naturally  permit  no  competition.  The  proportion  of  freight 
moved  by  water  is  thus  only  a  fifth  as  large  in  Great  Britain  as 


404  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

in  France.  The  Manchester  Ship  Canal, ^  however,  renders 
Manchester  a  seaport  independent  of  Liverpool,  and  from  it 
lines  of  steamships  now  sail  to  many  parts  of  the  world.  It 
already  ranks  fourth  among  British  seaports.  Such  is  the 
superiority  of  ocean  transportation  that  the  migration  of  indus- 
tries to  salt  water,  noticeable  in  various  countries,  can  only 
be  checked  by  thus,  in  effect,  bringing  the  sea  inland. 

The  British  highways  are  admirable,  in  striking  contrast  to 
their  condition  in  the  eighteenth  century;  and  the  railways, 
encountering  few  heavy  grades,  bring  practically  every  part  of 
the  larger  island  within  twelve  hours  of  London.  In  Ireland  th  e 
lines  radiate  from  Dublin,  which  commands  the  principal 
eastern  entrance  to  the  central  plain. 

443.  Seaports  of  Great  Britain.  The  leading  commercial 
ports  are  on  the  rivers  which  enter  the  sea  nearly  opposite  each 
other,  thus  bringing  the  ports  near  together,  for  example,  those 
on  the  Clyde  and  Forth,  Mersey  and  The  Humber,  Thames  and 
Severn. 

London,  the  metropolis,  banking  center,  and  long  the 
greatest  seaport  of  the  world,  was  originally  a  Roman  camp  on 
the  first  hill  encountered  in  ascending  the  river.  This  was  a 
convenient  point  for  crossing — at  first  by  ferry,  later  by  bridge. 
London  Bridge  was  thus  in  a  sense  the  cause  of  London.  The 
stupendous  growth  of  London  resulted  from  its  position  oppo- 
site the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  and  Meuse,  at  the  natural  gateway 
of  southern  England,  and  from  its  distributing  trade  in  oriental 
wares  before  the  Suez  Canal  was  opened.  It  is  still  the  prin- 
cipal world  market  for  tea  and  wine.  The  largest  ships, 
however,  are  now  compelled  to  stop  at  Tilbury  Docks,  far 
below  the  city;  and  the  great  continental  ports,  especially 
New  York,  Hamburg,  Rotterdam,  and  Antwerp,  have  out- 
stripped London  in  tonnage.     (Fig.  291.) 

The  other  leading  ports  are  Cardiff  (with  Barry  Docks)  on 
the  Severn,  exporting  anthracite;  Liverpool  on  the  Mersey,  the 
emporium  for  American  and  West  African  trade,  especially 

1  Length  thirty-five  and  one-half  miles;  depth  twenty-eight  feet. 


GREAT     BRITAIN     AND     IRELAND  405 

cotton,  wheat,  meat,  and  tobacco;  Manchester  reached  by 
canal;  Hull  on  The  Humber,  opposite  the  Weser,  Elbe,  and 
Kiel  Ship  Canal,  and  therefore  the  natural  outlet  for  North 
Sea  and  Baltic  trade;  Glasgow  in  Scotland  and  Belfast  in 
northern  Ireland,  whence  the  sea  way  is  shortest  to  Canada 
and  even  to  New  York.  Bristol,  though  crippled  by  shallow 
water,  retains  a  trade  in  sugar,  cocoa,  and  West  India  fruits. 
The  principal  passenger  and  mail  ports  are  Dover,  Folke- 
stone, and  Newhaven  toward  France  and  Belgium;  Harwich 
toward  Holland;  Holyhead  on  a  projecting  island  toward 
Ireland;  Queenstown,  the  outport  of  Cork,  Fishguard,  Plym- 
outh, and  Southampton,  toward  America.  It  is  now  possi- 
ble for  passengers  landing  at  Fishguard  to  breakfast  in  New 
York  on  Wednesday,  and  in  London  on  the  following  Monday. 

444.  The  Character  of  British  Commerce.  Great  Britain 
is  the  largest  exporter  of  manufactures  in  the  world  (Fig.  257), 
and  has  been  enabled  by  these  exports  to  support  at  least  three 
times  as  many  people  as  could  be  fed  from  her  own  soil.  Her 
imports,  therefore,  are  for  the  most  part  foodstuffs  and  raw 
materials. 

British  imports  exceed  the  exports  by  more  than  a  billion 
dollars  a  year  because  of  British  investments  abroad,  revenue 
received  from  tourists,  the  earnings  of  British  ships,  and  the 
banking  profits  of  London  on  international  transactions. 
This  excess  of  British  imports  consequently  represents  the 
tribute  which  the  world  annually  pays  to  Great  Britain. 

445.  Greater  Britain.  The  British  Empire  has,  in  round 
numbers,  four  times  the  area  and  five  times  the  population  of 
the  United  States.     (Table 4.) 

In  Europe  it  includes,  besides  Gibraltar  and  Malta,  the 
Isle  of  Man,  and  the  Channel  Islands,  which  are  French- 
speaking;  both  enjoying  a  large  measure  of  independence. 

Preeminent  among  the  outlying  possessions  are  Canada  and 
Newfoundland,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa; 
all  in  the  Temperate  zone  and  enjoying  almost  complete  rights 
of  self-government.     These   are   the   "younger   nations"   on 


4o6 


COMMERCIA  L     GEOGRA  PH  Y 


whom  during  the  Boer  War,  according  to  Kipling,  England,  in 
her  need,  "fawned  for  the  men  who  could  ride  and  shoot." 

India  is  a  dependent  empire  ruled  in  the  name  of  the  king, 
as  Emperor  of  India.  Some  of  the  older  tropical  colonies 
like  Barbados  and  Ceylon  have  local  legislatures  with  limited 
powers;  but  most  of  the  lesser  British  possessions  are  either 
Crown  Colonies  under  the  control  of  the  Colonial  Secretary,  like 
Hong-kong,   or   naval   stations   like    Aden   and   St.    Helena. 


Exports  by  classes. 

U/ome  produce) 


Imports  by  classes. . 


79% 

13% 

8% 

Manufactures 
1,824  million  dollars 

Coal  and 

materials 
287 

O 

37% 


37% 


26% 


Food  stuffs 

1,298  million  dollars 


Raw  materials 

1,296 


Manufactures 

and  sundries 

895 


Exports  by  countries. 


10% 

22% 

Jl% 

10% 

6% 

t%                  37% 

To 
India 
282 

Other 

possessions 

G19 

United 

States 

291 

6 

Cl4 

|4         All  oihers 

Imports  by  countries.. 


7% 

19% 

18% 

9% 

6%  6%  3%              32% 

Frum 
India 
229 

Other 

possessions 

070 

United 
States 

(527 

a 

9 

do 

|o      All  others 

1"                1 ,1«0 

Data  from  Statesman's  Year  Book.  1912-15 

i:**lG.  257.      Commerce  of  Great  Britian.      Totals,  four-year  averages  {millions 

of  dollars) :  exports  of  home  produce,  2,304;  re-exports  {transit 

trade),  520;  total  exports,  2,824;  imports,  3,48q. 

Large  territories  in  Africa  and  Borneo  are  administered  by 
chartered  companies  like  those  which  originally  colonized 
America.  Still  larger  territories  under  British  protection  are 
ruled  through  native  princes,  as  i-n  Egypt  and  the  native  states 
of  India.  Finally,  on  the  fringe  of  the  empire,  are  immense 
"splieres  of  influence"  where  British  authority  is  still  little 
more  than  a  name.     So  vast  and  varied  is  the  British  Empire. 


XXXII— THE  LESSER  NORTH  SEA  NATIONS 

"Rigor  of  climate  tends  to  breed  vigorous,  somewhat  forethoughtful 
men." — SJialer. 

446.  The  Scandinavian  Peoples.  "From  the  fury  of  the 
Danes  and  Northmen, good  L'ord,  deliver  us."  This  was  the 
prayer  repeated  in  every  church  of  western  Europe  for  some 
five  centuries  when  the  roving  Vikings  or  sea  kings  of  Scandi- 
navia were  the  terror  of  the  world,  ravaging  nearly  every' 
coast,  conquering  Normandy  and  England,  penetrating  to  the 
heart  of  Russia  and  even  to  Constantinople.  The  same  expan- 
sive movement  of  population  is  represented  to-day  by  the 
Scandinavian  farmers  who  have  settled  almost  in  solid  masses 
in  the  North  Central  states  of  the  American  Union.  Both 
movements,  the  warlike  and  the  peaceful,  had  the  same  cause : 
a  rapid  increase  of  population  on  a  sterile  soil  which  left  but 
two  alternatives,  migration  or  starvation. 

Since  Norway  by  a  peaceful  revolution  achieved  her  inde- 
pendence, the  Scandinavian  states  consist  of  three  separate 
constitutional  kingdoms — Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 
Norway,  however,  speaking  a  dialect  of  Danish  and  opening 
toward  the  west,  is  far  more  democratic  than  Sweden,  facing 
the  continent.  In  all  the  Scandinavian  states  education  is 
practically  universal,  offsetting  in  part  the  larger  natural 
resources  of  more  southern  lands. 

447.  The  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  The  Scandinavian 
Peninsula  consists,  in  the  main,  of  a  lofty  plateau  ridged  with 
mountains.  (Fig.  258.)  On  the  east  the  land  dips  gently 
beneath  the  sea;  but  on  the  west  it  descends  abruptly,  leaving 
scant  room  for  agriculture.  This  peninsula  is  in  the  latitude, 
and  has  substantially  the  climate,  of  Alaska.  It  is,  however, 
somewhat  milder  because  a  great  tide  of  warm  water,  driven 
by  the  west  wind,  flows  up  the  western  coast  and  the  wind, 
in  turn,  is  tempered  by  blowing  over  the  water. 

(407) 


4o8 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


448.     The  Resources  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.     The 

resources  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula  are  chiefly  those  of  the 
sea,  forest,  and  mine. 

The  Norwegians  are  in  proportion  to  their  numbers  the 
greatest  fishing  people  in  the  world.  The  catch  is  chiefly  cod 
on  the  Lofoten  bank  and  herring  around  Bergen.     Whales 


Fig.  258.     Scandinavian  countries. 

and  fur-bearing  animals  are  also  hunted  in  the  Far  North. 
By-products  of  the  fishing  industry  are  fish  oils  and  fertilizers. 
Timber  occurs  on  the  seaward  slopes  and  is  of  excellent 
quality,  being  close-grained  and  tough  because  of  the  rocky 
soil  and  short  summers.     It  is  exported  in  the  form  of  lumber, 


THE     LESSER    NORTH    SEA     NATIONS 


409 


Staves,  or  wood  pulp  (Figs.  259  and  260);  and  also  supports 
important  furniture,  paper,  and  match  industries.  Swedish 
matches  are  sold  all  over  the  world. 

The  mines  of  Dannemora  were  the  foundation  of  the  ancient 
Swedish  iron  industry.  Charcoal  is  still  employed  for  smelt- 
ing, the  product  being  expensive  but  of  finer  quality  than  coal 
iron,  as  it  contains  few  impurities.  Other  large  iron  ore  beds 
have  recently  been  opened  around  Gellivara  and  the  Varanger 
Fiord  in  the  Far  North.  Copper,  silver-lead,  and  zinc  ores 
are  also  mined,  to  a  limited  extent,  in  the  rich  metalliferous 
district  north  of  Stockholm.  Coal  is  lacking,  except  a  small 
field  in  the  extreme  south;  but  peat,  dried  and  pressed  into 
briquettes,  is  extensively  burned  in  Sweden  even  on  railways. 

32%  24%  20%  12%       6%     5%1% 


Russia 
5.9  million  tons 

Sweden 
4.46 

Austria- 
Hungary 
3.67 

Canada 
2.14 

U.S. 
1.02 

1 

Data  from  Forest  Serrice,  Circular,  141) 


Fig.  259.     Average  net  wood  exports  {millions  of  tons^):  i 

31%                                             35%                                13%           8% 

8.37. 

4%     9% 

Norway 
1,387  million  pounds 

Sweden 
1,581 

Canada 

5S3 

a 
0 

All  other 

couiUrici) 

414 

Data  from  U.  S.  Yoar  Books  of  Agriculture,  1912-13 

Fig.  260.     Wood  pulp  exports.     Total,  average,  4,5 1 Q  million  pounds. 

The  soil  rewards  but  scantil}^  the  farmer's  toil.  Pasturage, 
however,  is  abundant,  supporting  cattle,  sheep,  and  in  the 
extreme  north  reindeer — "the  camel  of  the  frozen  desert." 
Butter,  margarine  (oleomargarine),  and  condensed  milk  are 
largely  exported.  The  arable  land,  chiefly  in  the  district 
around  Christiania  and  south  of  Stockholm,  yields  potatoes 
and  oats.  Other  grain  crops  are  insufficient  for  local  use. 
Owing  to  the  moderating  effect  of  the  ocean  and  the  west 
wdnds,  barley  ripens  in  Norway  even  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle. 

Modern  dairies  and  margarine  factories  are  fairly  numerous ; 

some   cotton   and   woolen    mills    are    at   work    in    southern 

Sweden,    at    Gothenburg   and    Norrkoping.     Norway  would 

'According  to  the  kind  of  wood  a  ton  is  equivalent  to  from  500  to 
1,000  board  feet.     (U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Circular,  No.  140.) 


4IO  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

also  seem  to  have  favorable  conditions  for  the  textile  industry 
in  her  water  power  and  damp  climate.  Another  growing 
industry,  in  view  of  the  abundant  water  power,  is  the  manu- 
facture of  air-nitrates,  using  the  electric  process.     (§117.) 

449.  The  Commerce  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  Nor- 
way exports  mainly  fish,  lumber,  paper,  and  dairy  products; 
Sweden,  lumber,  paper,  matches,  butter,  and  iron  ore, 
besides  some  iron  goods  more  or  less  wrought.  Both  import 
foodstuffs  and  manufactured  goods. 

The  Norwegian  coast  is  ice-free  except  in  the  sheltered 
Christiania  Bay.  It  is  deeply  cut  by  fiords,  the  work  of 
ancient  glaciers,  and  fringed  by  islands  which  break  the  force 
of  the  Atlantic  surges.  The  Norse,  trained  in  the  fisheries, 
are  thus  naturally  the  most  maritime  people  in  the  world, 
and  have  by  far  the  largest  merchant  fleet  in  proportion 
to  population.  (Fig.  261.)  Their  principal  seaports  are 
Christiania,  which  has  valleys  opening  up  behind  it,  and 
Bergen,   the   center  of  the  fish   trade. 

The  Baltic,  cut  off  from  the  ocean  and  exposed  to  the  winds 
from  the  Russian  plain,  is  usually  icebound  four  months  each 
year.  The  principal  Swedish  ports  are  Gothenburg,  ice-free 
because  of  its  western  exposure,  and  Stockholm  located  at  the 
outlet  of  an  important  lake  in  the  most  fertile  district. 

The  rivers  are  useful  chiefly  for  logging  and  power.  There  is, 
however,  a  water  route  from  sea  to  sea  by  way  of  the  great 
Swedish  lakes  and  the  Gota  Canal  (nine  feet  deep). 


JVonvay 

Great  Britain , 

Holland. 

Certnafty 

/■'ranee 

United  States . 


'JSS 


•>33 


-5b 
43 
—3S 
Data  from  Review  of  World's  Commerce,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  1903 


Fig.  261.     Tonnage  of  merchant  marine  per  i,ooo  people,  showing 
relative  importance  of  ocean  shipping  previous  to  1914. 

The  railway   system   is  large  relative   to   the   population. 
Christiania  is  connected  with  the  western  coast  at  Bergen. 


THE  LESSER   NORTH   SEA    NATIONS  4II 

Other  lines  across  the  mountains  render  Trondhjem  the  winter 
port  of  central  Sweden,  and  Narvik  the  outlet  of  the 
Gellivara  iron  district.  Since  the  completion  of  the  railway 
around  the  Baltic,  indeed,  Narvik  has  become  the  winter  port 
of  Petrograd  (St.  Petersburg.)^ 

450.    The  Resources  of  Denmark.     Denmark  lives  almost 
exclusively  from  the  soil.    The  surface  is  flat,  and  most  of 

46%  25% 28%_ 


Butter 
45  million  dollars 

Bacon  and  hams 
26 

All  others 
28 

Data  from  Almanach  de  Gotha,  1909-13 

Fig.   262.     Exports  of  Denmark.     Totals,  five-year  averages   {millions  of 

dollars):  exports,  171,  chiefly  to  Great  Britain  and  Germany;  imports, 

200,  largely  corn  and  oil  cake,  coal,  and  manufactures. 

the  soil  very  sandy.  Destruction  of  the  splendid  beech 
forests  which  formerly  abounded  has  caused  sand  dunes  to 
invade  the  west.  Even  in  the  east,  tillage  demands  constant 
use  of  fertilizers. 

Most  of  the  land  is  consequently  under  grass  and  the  princi- 
pal exports  are  animal  products — butter,  margarine,  bacon, 
eggs,  and  live  animals.  (Fig.  262.)  Butter,  made  in  cooperative 
creameries,  is  the  true  economic  foundation  of  Denmark. 
Nowhere  else  has  the  cooperative  plan  in  agriculture  been  tried 
so  extensively  or  with  such  striking  success.  Bacon  is  a 
by-product  of  butter  making,  the  skim  milk  being  fed  to  pigs. 
The  field  crops  include,  besides  grain  and  potatoes,  beets  from 
which  considerable  sugar  and  alcohol  are  produced.  Leather 
goods,  especially  gloves,  are  also  exported. 

451.  Facilities  for  Commerce  in  Denmark.  The  historic 
importance  and  present  existence  of  Denmark  are  alike  due  to 
its  position,  controlling  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic.  The 
great  nations,  owing  to  their  mutual  rivalries,  would  not 
willingly  see  any  one  of  tlieir  number  master  at  Copenhagen. 

This  city  is  the  natural  distributing   center  for  the  Baltic 

trade,  though    Hamburg  has  become  a  formidable  rival  by 

1  A  long  finger  of  Finnish  territory,  however,  points  straight  toward 
the  ice-free  Lyngen  Fiord  and  the  harbor  of  Tromso. 


412 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


virtue  of  the  ship  canal  to  Kiel.  Copenhagen  has,  besides  steam- 
ship lines,  direct  rail  connection  by  car  ferries  with  Sweden,  the 
Danish  Peninsula,  and  Warnemiinde  on  the  route  to  Berlin. 

452-     The  Danish  Possessions.     To  Denmark  belong  the 
Faroe  Islands  which  like  Iceland  are  inhabited  by  a  sturdy, 

well-educated  race 
descended  from 
Norse  Vikings. 
They  live  by  fishing, 
sheep  raising,  and 
collecting  eider- 
down from  the  nests 
of  wild  ducks.  Den- 
mark also  controls 
Greenland,  which  is, 
however,  mostly  an 
ice  field. 

By  granting  in- 
dependence to  Ice- 
land and  selling  to 
the  United  States, 
(i 9  I  7)  her  three 
islands  in  the  West 
Indies  which  were 
of  little  economic 
value  to  her,  (Fig. 
194),  Denmark  re- 
duced her  colonial 
possessions,  but 
as  a  result  of  the 


a4  Huilule 
Itailvays 
Navipitjle  rivers  _ 
Canals -- 
Steamahip  lii 


Fig.  263.     The  Low  Countries. 


World  War   has  enlarged  her  continental  area. 

453.  The  Low  Countries.  The  Netherlands  (Fig.  263)  is 
the  gift  of  the  Rhine,  Meuse,  and  Scheldt,  as  Egypt  is  of  the 
Nile:  but  a  gift  in  large  part  won  from  the  waves  by  century- 
long  battles  with  the  encroaching  sea.  Moreover  the  sea, 
which  could  be  summoned  by  cutting  the  dikes  to  defend  the 


THE  LESSER  NORTH  SEA  NATIONS  413 

land,  alone  made  possible  its  political  independence.  Holland, 
or  the  Netherlands,  as  it  is  officially  known  as  a  nation,  is  thus 
the  product  of  the  ocean,  as  Switzerland  is  of  the  Alps. 

Belgium,  qji  the  other  hand,  lacking  natural  boundaries  in 
all  directions,  has  always  been  a  debatable  land.  No  equal 
area  is  so  sown  with  battlefields.  The  larger  part  of  the 
population  to  the  north  is  Dutch  (Flemish)  in  speech,  while 
the  population  of  the  southern  hill  country  is  French.  The 
linguistic  boundary  which  is  rather  sharply  marked,  runs 
approximately  from  Courtrai  past  the  historic  field  of  Waterloo 
to  Verviers.     (Fig.  229.) 

454.  Natural  Resources  of  the  Low  Countries.  Patches  of 
forests  exist  on  the  broken  Ardennes  Plateau  in  southeastern 
Belgium;  but  timber  is  a  large  import  both  in  Holland  and 
Belgium. 

Much  of  the  land  is  under  grass.  The  drier  east  pastures 
sheep,  the  low-lying  west  pastures  dairy  cattle  and  draft 
horses.  Belgian  horses  are  largely  exported.  In  Belgium, 
where  less  than  half  the  farms  contain  as  much  as  two  and  a 
half  acres  each,  pigs,  poultry,  rabbits,  and  draft  dogs^  are  also 
important. 

The  land  being  so  subdivided,  agriculture  is  a  matter  for 
the  spade  rather  than  the  plow. 

The  staple  foods  are  rye  and  potatoes,  though  other  grains 
are  also  sown.  Immense  quantities  of  vegetables  and  flowers 
are  raised  under  glass.  From  parts  of  Holland,  special 
cabbage,  cucumber,  and  meat  trains  are  run  to  the  seaports  for 
the  London  market.  Sugar  beets  are  extensively  grown  in 
both  Holland  and  Belgium.  Other  industrial  crops  comprise 
the  finest  flax  in  the  Lys  Valley,  tobacco  near  Courtrai,  chicory 
in  the  Bruges  district,  and  oil  seeds  (colza,  rape)  around  Ghent. 
Chicory  is  a  root  which  came  into  use  during  the  wars  of 
Napoleon  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

The  Dutch  began  their  career  on  the  sea  as  fishermen,  and 
fishing  is  still  a  great  primary  industry  of  the  Netherlands. 

'See  Ouida's  Dog  of  Flanders. 


414  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

The  hilly  district  in  southern  Belgium  is  rich  in  minerals; 
notably  iron  at  Liege,  zinc  at  Moresnct,  silver-lead  at  Ver- 
viers,  coal  around  Mons,  Charleroi,  and  Liege.  By  reason  of 
these  resources,  which  support  manufactures,  I^elgium  is  the 
most  densely-populated  country  in  Europe,  and  the  immi- 
gration has  always  exceeded  the  emigration.     (Fig.  240.) 

455.  Manufactures  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  Nethei- 
lands,  having  neither  coal  nor  water  power,  has  few  manufac- 
tures. Those  of  large  commercial  importance  are  chiefly 
pottery  at  Delft,  diamond  polishing  at  Amsterdam,  paper 
along  the  Zaan  River,  and  the  preparation  of  colonial  wares 
such  as  chocolate,  quinine,  and  tobacco.  The  steady  winds 
furnish  considerable  power  for  drainage  and  local  industries. 

Belgium,  on  the  other  hand,  is  once  more  the  greatest  hive 
of  industry  on  the  mainland  of  Europe,  as  it  was  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  linen  industry  flourishes  along  the  river 
Lys,  where  the  water,  being  free  from  lime  salts,  is  peculiarly 
adapted  for  retting  flax^that  is,  separating  the  fiber  from  the 
stalk.  Ghent  in  the  flax-growing  lowlands  is  the  center  of 
linen  manufacture,  and  also  of  cotton,  hemp,  and  jute  manu- 
factures ;  while  Verviers  on  the  sheep-raising  Ardennes  Plateau 
is  the  center  of  woolen,  and  Brussels  of  carpet  and  lace  manu- 
facture. Belgium  is  the  greatest  lace-manufacturing  country 
in  the  world.  The  mineral  manufactures  are  naturally  located 
on  the  Belgian  coal  fields.  The  Liege  field  contains  many  zinc 
smelters.  Seraing,  a  suburb  of  Liege,  has  rivaled  Le  Creusot 
and  Birmingham  in  steel.  Firearms  arc  another  specialty  of 
this  district.  Charleroi  is  noted  for  glass,  in  which  Belgitmi 
has  held  first  place,  and  Jemappes  for  pottery. 

456.  Trade  Routes  and  Centers  of  the  Low  Countries.  The 
Netherlands  has  a  superb  system  of  water  ways,  both  natural 
and  artificial ;  Belgium  leads  the  world  in  railway  mileage  rela- 
tive to  area.  (Fig.  289.)  The  coast,  however,  is  sandy  and  the 
sea  shallow  far  out,  while  the  rivers  require  such  constant 
dredging  that  most  of  the  Belgian-Dutch  ports  now  rely  on 
ship  canals. 


Tfit  LESSER  NORTTJ  SEA    NATIONS  415 

The  old  commercial  center  of  Holland  is  Amsterdam,  near 
the  head  of  the  Zuider  Zee.  It  has  a  ship  canal  to  the  North 
Sea,  and  other  canals  to  the  Rhine  and  into  Belgium.^  Owing 
to  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  Amsterdam  is  the  first  coffee  mar- 
ket in  the  world  and  next  to  London  the  largest  market  for 
all  other  East  India  products.  Rotterdam  on  the  northern 
mouth  of  the  Rhine  handles  an  enormous  transit  trade.  Over 
a  hundred  forty  thousand  river  and  canal  boats  enter  yearly. 
It  is,  in  fact,  the  natural  seaport  of  the  whole  Rhine  Valley 
and  tends  to  supersede  Amsterdam  as  the  chief  commercial 
city.  Fast  passenger  traffic  between  London  and  Berlin  goes 
by  way  of  Flushing. 

The  commercial  center  of  Belgium  is  Antwerp,  lying  some 
miles  up  the  Scheldt  but  accessible  to  the  largest  vessels.  It 
is  also  connected  by  canals  with  the  Seine  and  the  Rhine, 
besides  the  industrial  centers  of  Liege  and  Charleroi.  Antwerp 
has  come  to  the  front  with  great  rapidity  and  now  ranks 
among  leading  European  ports  in  tonnage  entered  and  cleared.^ 
(Fig.  291.)  Bruges,  which  was  the  entrepot  of  Venetian  trade 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  has  again  secured  a  ship  canal  to 
the  sea,^  as  has  also  its  ancient  rival,  Ghent.*  Heyst  (Zee- 
brtigge)  is  a  new  outport  of  Bruges  at  the  mouth  of  the  canal, 
but  passenger  traffic  still  goes  by  way  of  Ostend. 

457.  The  Commerce  of  the  Low  Countries.  During  the 
seventeenth  century  the  Netherlands  held  the  commercial 
supremacy  in  Europe.  In  proportion  to  population,  the 
Low  Countries  still  have  the  largest  foreign  commerce. 
(Table  4.)  This  is  the  result  not  only  of  their  position  and 
facilities   for  transportation,   but   also   of   the  character  and 

iThe  North  Sea  Canal,  fifteen  miles  long  and  thirty-three  feet  deep; 
the  Merwede  Canal,  ten  and  one-half  feet,  to  the  Rhine;  the  South  Willems 
Canal,  seven  and  one-half  feet,  to  Belgium. 

^Tonnage,  however,  is  not  an  entirely  safe  guide  to  commercial 
importance.  A  vessel  may  stop  at  an  intermediate  port  without 
leaving    or    taking    away    much    freight. 

^Twenty-six  and  one-half  feet  deep,  seven  miles  long. 

^The  Terneuzen  Canal,  nineteen  miles  long,  now  deepened  to  twenty- 
eight  and  one-half  feet. 


4i6 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


technical  education  of  their  inhabitants.  There  are  Schools 
of  Commerce  at  Amsterdam,  Antwerp,  and  elsewhere;  Com- 
mercial Museums  at  Amsterdam  and  Brussels;  and  an  exten- 
sive system  of  industrial  education  in  Belgium. 

In  consequence  of  difference  in  natural  resources,  the  Neth- 
erlands exports  largely  dairy  products,  margarine,  and  mutton, 
while  Belgium  exports  chiefly  manufactures.  Both  import 
foodstuffs.  In  addition,  the  Netherlands  imports  manu- 
factured   goods,    and    Belgium    imports    raw    materials. 

458.  The  Colonies  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  Dutch 
colonies  are  a  legacy  from  the  days  when  Admiral  Van  Tromp 
carried  a  broom  at  his  masthead  as  a  token  that  he  would 
sweep   from   the  sea  e\'cry  opposing   fleet.     These   colonies 


Exports  by  classes.. 


Itji ports  by  countries.. 


29% 

33% 

19% 

m 

Food  stuffs 

Raw  materials 

Manufac- 
tures 

All 
others 

29%                  14%        10%      10%     9%      8%           20% 

From 
Germanj- 

Dutch 
East 
luJies 

Ciiited   Great 
Stitcs  Britain 

3 

1 

All 
others 

Data  from  Almanach  de  Gotha,  1?)15 


Fig.   264.      Tlie  commerce  of  the  Netherlands.     Totals  in  igi2 

{millions  of  dollars):  exports,  1,24s;  imports,  1,445.      These 

figures  include  a  large  transit  trade. 


Exports  by  classes. 


u 


5%  4°,  3'2'2^ 


Criule 
materials 


Metals 

and 

met\l 

manufac 

tares 


All  Others 


imports  by  countries 


18% 

10% 

14% 

9% 

7% 

ti% 

6% 

30% 

From 
France 

t  i 
0  5 

Germany 

3  oj 

i.  — 

1 

2 

All  Others 

Data  from  Statesman's  Vear  Book,  1H14 


Fig.  265.     The  commerce  of  Belgium.     Totals  in  1012 
{millions  of  dollars):  exports,  763;  imports,  pj/. 

emlDrace  most  of  the  East  India  islands,  besides  important 
possessions  in  the  West  Indies.     They  are  collectively  smaller 


THE    LESSER    NORTif   SEA    NATIONS  417 

than  the  French  colonial  empire,  but  far  richer.  The  Dutch 
are  incontestably  the  ablest  administrators  of  plantation 
colonies,  as  the  English  are  of  self-governing  colonies. 

King  Leopold  of  Belgium,  desirous  of  increasing  his  private 
income,  organized  a  company  which  sent  out  Stanley  to 
explore  the  Congo,  and  then  by  virtue -of  his  official  position 
got  permission  from  the  great  nations  to  organize  a  sort  of 
independent  state.  vSince  then,  however,  the  Congo  State 
has  been  annexed  by  Belgium.  Through  this  connection, 
Antwerp  has  become  the  principal  market  in  the  world  for 
rubber,  ivory,  and  copal  gum. 


XXXIII— GERMANY 

459,  The  German  Nation.  After  the  military  triumph 
over  Austria  in  1866,  as  a  result  of  which  Prussia  succeeded 
in  making  itself  the  head  of  the  German  Confederation,  an 
era  of  industrial  and  commercial  development  was  inaugu- 
rated in  Germany  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia.  This  era 
was  dominated  by  the  same  spirit  of  conquest  and  aggrandize- 
ment that  has  characterized  Prussian  principles  since  the  time 
of  Frederick  the  Great.  Whatever  success  has  resulted  has  been 
at  bottom  due  to  the  thorough  technical  training  guided  by  the 
strong  hand  of  the  German  schoolmaster  who  has  rigorously 
carried  out  the  teachings  laid  down  by  his  government. 

To  accomplish  this  result,  education  was  made  in  fact  uni- 
versal; and  the  thorough  system  of  primary,  secondary,  and 
university  instruction  was  supplemented  by  many  technical 
schools  for  farmers,  artisans,  and  business  men.  These 
special  schools  were  grafted  on  the  trunk  of  general  education, 
branching  off  at  different  elevations.  The  highest  were  the 
great  agricultural,  technical,  commercial,  and  colonial  schools, 
of  true  university  rank,  which  trained  the  captains  of  German 
industry  and  commerce. 

The  Gennan  people,  more  than  any  other  in  modern  times, 
have  been  trained  in  an  all-embracing  "system"  which  left 
nothing  to  chance,  and  little  to  the  individual,  and  yet  carried 
into  the  competition  of  international  commerce  the  aggres- 
siveness and  discipline  of  the  battlefield. 

460.  The  German  Government.  The  German  Empire  was 
a  confederation  of  twenty-six  states  which  included  kingdoms 
and  principalities  large  and  small,  also  the  three  free  (repub- 
lican) city-states  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Liibeck  —  the 
remnants  of  the  once  mighty  Hanse.  (Fig.  267.)  From 
the  American  viewpoint,  indeed,  there  was  too  much  govern- 
ment in   Germany,  and  far  too  much  restriction  of  private 

(418) 


GERMANY 


419 


initiative;  but  in  directing  the  campaign  to  oust  competitors 
from  the  markets  of  the  world — and  thereby  satisfy  her  desire 
for  growth  and  power  of  territory — the  government  of  Ger- 
many demonstrated  the  advantages  in  commercial  power  to 
be  gained  from  a  system  of  thorough  organization  and 
centralization. 

461.    Forestry  and  Animal  Products  in  Germany.    Germany 
is  not  richly  endowed  by  nature.     The  soil  is  light  and  sandy 


'Alt«a 


*Lubeck 


A>«sfT  en  D 


Ch^pelle 


A    L    T   1    C; 
I 
SEA       \ 


LDanzifi 


viyi^i)"-!^    Prague 


K'Jnigsliutte 


'-'Vv, 


CD  0_, 

Kasel 


/  Itri/       fyiKfEatl  from  erunieieh 


GERMAN  EMPIRE 

Scale 

0       25        ^0  100  1"5Q 

/**  Statute  Mills  to  one  inch 

PropoBed  canals  =  ■*&. 

Steamship  lines 

Navieable  riven 


Fig.  267.     The  German  Empire  and  Luxemburg,  IQ14. 
in  the  northern  plain,  rocky  on  the  uplands.     Only  the  valleys 
of  the  south  and  center,  with  certain  districts  around  Frank- 
furt, are  naturally  fertile.     The  climate  is  generally  cold  and 
raw,  while  the  east  is  subject  to  great  extremes  of  temperature. 

The  uplands  are  largely  forested,  the  young  trees  being 
saved  when  the  mature  are  cut.  The  forests  are  as  a  rule 
state   or   municipal  property  and   yield  handsome  revenues. 


420  COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 

The  moist  lowlands  toward  the  west  and  the  southern 
plateau  pasture  numerous  dairy  cattle ;  the  drier  eastern  dis- 
tricts have  sheep  and  horses;  and  there  are  many  swine  in  the 
oak  forests  of  Westphalia.  Stock  raising  has  made  remark- 
able progress,  considering  the  dense  population  of  Germany, 
through  the  use  of  potatoes  and  beet  pulp,  from  which  the 
juice  has  been  extracted,  for  feeding  purposes.  The  preva- 
lence of  small  farms,  except  in  the  half-feudal  eastern  part  of 
Prussia,  also  renders  poultry  and  bee  keeping  of  considerable 
importance. 

462.  Scientific  Agriculture  in  Germany.  Modern  German 
agriculture  rests  on  the  discoveries  of  the  great  chemist  Liebig 
as  to  how  poor  or  worn-out  soils  may  be  made  to  yield  boun- 
tiful harvests.  This  miracle  of  nature  is  wrouglit  by  scatter- 
ing on  the  land  pliospliates,  in  Germany  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  slag  from  basic  iron  furnaces;  potash  salts,  from  the  great 
beds  at  Stassfurt ;  and  Chilean  nitrates.  Germany  has  expended 
over  $60,000,000  a  year  for  such  commercial  fertilizers. 
Scientific  crop  rotation  is  also  practiced  to  maintain  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil;  and  nowhere,  unless  possibly  in  Denmark, 
has  agriculture  been  more  thoroughly  organized  to  protect  the 
producer  and  eliminate  the  middleman.  For  example,  many 
cooperative  banks  and  cooperative  buying  and  selling  associa- 
tions assure  the  farmers  extremely  low  interest  rates  on  loans, 
wholesale  prices  on  fertilizers  and  other  supplies,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  highest  prices  for  their  products. 

463.  Farm  Products  in  Germany.  The  staple  crops  on 
tlic  sandy  northern  plain  are  potatoes,  rye,  and  oats.  (Pigs.  43 
and  44.)  Potatoes  are  not  only  eaten  in  their  native  condition 
but  dried  and  made  into  potato  flour,  starch,  or  dextrin.  In 
addition,  potatoes  serve  as  a  source  of  alcohol,  which  is  used 
for  light,  heat,  and  power.  Rye  is  the  chief  breadstuff  throughout 
the  northern  plain.  On  the  better  soils  of  central  Germany, 
around  Magdeburg  and  Breslau,  sugar  beets  are  the  leading 
commercial  crop,  and  some  flax  is  still  planted.  Before  the  war 
(191 4-18)  Germany  was  the  largest  producer  of  beet  sugar  in 


GERMANY  42 1 

the  world.  (Fig.  278.)  On  the  upper  Rhine  the  grains  are 
wheat  and  barley;  the  industrial  crops,  tobacco  and  chicory, 
with  grapes  on  all  the  terraced  slopes  and  hops  on  the 
Bavarian  Plateau.  The  country  roads  are  commonly  lined 
with  plum  trees,  and  nearly  every  German  village  is  embow- 
ered in  orchards,  although  the  climate  is  far  less  favorable  to 
fruits  than  in  France. 

Germany  lies  too  far  north  for  corn,  yet  some  cultivated 
(inter-tilled)  crop  is  indispensable  in  the  rotation  system  to 
keep  the  soil  in  good  condition.  This  fact  largely  explains 
the  importance  of  potatoes  in  northern,  sugar  beets  in  central, 
and  tobacco,  chicory,  and  hops  in  southern  Germany. 

Owing  to  the  dense  population  of  Germany,  beet  sugar 
is  the  only  important  agricultural  export,  while  foodstuffs, 
especially  wheat,  have  begun  to  be  largely  imported. 

464.  The  Fisheries  of  Germany.  Almost  every  village  has 
a  pond  planted  with  German  carp,  and  the  rivers  are  similarly 
stocked.  Amber,  a  fossil  resin  which  first  drew  Greek  vessels  to 
the  north,  is  still  washed  up  by  the  waves  along  the  shore  of  the 
Baltic;  but  the  German  sea  fisheries  are  relatively  unim- 
portant, as  the  Baltic  is  brackish  and  therefore  poor  in  fish 
and  the  best  fishing  grounds  in  the  North  Sea  are  nearer 
other  countries. 

465.  The  Mineral  Resources  of  Germany.  The  mineral 
resources  of  Germany,  on  the  other  liand,  are  abundant  and  form 
the  physical  basis  of  its  industrial  and  commercial  prosperity. 
The  richest  mineral  belt  lies  on  the  flanks  of  the  central  uplands 
which  extend  with  some  breaks  from  Belgium  to  Russia. 
The  metallic  resources  are  zinc,^  in  which  Germany  has  ranked 
next  to  the  United  States;  deposits  of  iron  which  have  been 
considered  the  largest  in  the  world;  and  also  considerable  cop- 
per, silver,  and  lead.'^    (Fig.  268.)    There  are  several  coal  fields  ^ 

iNear  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  the  west  and  Konigshiitte  in  the  east. 

2At  Mansfield  in  the  Harz  Mountains  and  Freiberg  in  the  Erzgebirge 
(Ore  Mountains). 

■5 In  the  Ruhr  valley,  also  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Erzgebirge. 
Lignite  occurs  in  central  Germany  around  Hanover. 


422 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


smaller  than  those  of  France  but  better  located  with  reference 
to  iron  ore  and  water  transportation,  and  therefore  far  more 
productive.  (Fig.  268.)  Finally,  Germany  possesses  abundant 
deposits  of  salt,  especially  in  the  provinces  of  Saxony  and 
Hanover,    and    the    principal    deposits    of    potash    salts    at 


Data  from  Diercke's  SchOl-Atlaa 


Fig.  268.     Coal  and  iron  fields  of  Central  Europe 

Stassfurt.  Besides  their  use  on  worn-out  soils  as  fertilizers, 
potash  salts  are  of  great  value  in  the  chemical  industries.  In 
the  Danube  region,  lithographic  stone  is  mined  at  Solnhofen 
and  graphite  at  Passau. 

466.  The  Manufactures  of  Germany.  The  people  of  Ger- 
many believed  that  a  great  truth  was  embodied  in  the  words 
"The  future  of  Germany  lies  upon  the  ocean."  In  order  to 
support  her  rapidly  growing  population  at  home,  Germany, 
driven  to  manufacture  for  export,  became  in  thirty  years  (1870- 
1900)  preeminently  an  industrial  and  commercial  nation 
whose  wares  were  in  every  mart  and  whose  ships  furrowed 
every  sea. 

Domestic  industries,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  toys, 
clocks,  and  mouth  harmonicas,  still  survive  in  mountain  dis- 
tricts,   especially   the  Black  Forest.     But  the  silence   of   the 


GERMANY  423 

thinly-peopled  highlands  contrasts  sharply  with  the  clang  of 
industry  in  the  valleys  which  penetrate  the  coal  fields. 

467.  The  German  Iron  and  Steel  Industry.  The  leading 
manufacturing  industry  of  Germany  is  the  working  of  iron  and 
steel,  in  which  Germany  has  surpassed  Great  Britain.  (Figs. 
269  and  282.)  This  industry  is  localized  largely  in  the  Rhine 
industrial  district,  and  the  heart  of  the  Rhine  district  is  the 
Ruhr  coal  field,  which  has  iron  ore  in  the  vicinity  and  other 
deposits  accessible  by  water  from  the  Moselle  Valley. 
(Fig.  268.)  Leading  steel  centers  are  Diisseldorf;  Essen, 
the  seat  of  the  great  Krupp  steel  works  (Fig.  269) ;  and  Solingen, 
noted  for  cutlery.  Steel  ships,  however,  are  naturally  built 
in  the  seaports,  notably  Stettin  and  Kiel,  which  obtain  coal  and 
iron  from  the  upper  valley  by  way  of  the  Oder  River. 

468.  The  German  Textile  Industry.  Next  in  importance 
is  the  textile  industry.  In  the  Rhine  district  where  imported 
fibers  are  easily  accessible,  the  textile  centers  are  Krefeld,  rank-, 
ing  next  to  Lyons  in  silk;  Miinchen-Gladbach,  noted  for  cotton 
goods;  and  Barmen-Elberfeld,  producing  mixed  textiles  and 
aniline  dyes.  In  the  vicinity  there  are,  in  addition,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  the  seat  of  important  woolen,  and  Bielefeld,  of  linen, 
manufactures.     A  second  textile  district  is  found  in  south  Ger- 


FiG.  269.     Btrd's-eye  view  of  the  Krupp  steel  works  at  Essen. 

many,  where  water  power  is  of  some  importance.     The  leading 
manufacturing  centers  are  Augsburg  and  Halle,  both  producing 


424  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

cotton  goods.  A  third  textile  district  is  associated  with  the 
coal  fields  along  the  northern  flank  of  the  mountains  in  Sax- 
ony. Chemnitz  produces  chiefly  hosiery,  besides  textile 
machinery;  Zwickau,  in  a  sheep-raising  region,  has  woolen 
mills;  and  Zittau,  in  a  flax -growing  district,  makes  linen  goods. 

469.  Other  Industries.  The  industry  third  in  importance 
was  the  manufacture  of  chemicals.  In  fact,  the  chemical 
laboratory  was  to  a  great  extent  the  foundation  of  all  German 
industries,  as  the  machine  shop  is  of  American  industries. 
Germany,  because  of  her  many  expert  chemists,^  enjoyed  a 
practical  monopoly  in  the  making  of  aniline  (coal-tar)  colors. 
During  the  World  War  American  chemical  industries  did 
much  to  supply  the  deficiency  created  by  the  German  block- 
ade. The  center  of  the  industry  is  the  district  from  Frank- 
furt to  Mannheim  on  the  up])er  Rhine. 

Among  the  other  iinportant  industries  arc  the  manufacture 
.  of  "Dresden"  china  at  Meissen,  near  deposits  of  kaoHn;  furni- 
ture at  Stuttgart,  and  jewelry  at  Pforzheim  in  the  Black  Forest; 
also  paper,  leather,  and  rubber  goods  in  many  ci.ies.  The  cen- 
ter of  the  world's  book  trade  is  at  Leipzig.  Munich,  at  the  falls 
of  the  foaming  Isar,  is  noted  for  beer,  which  th-:  Germans  early 
learned  to  brew  from  hops  and  barley,  and  for  works  of  art  in 
wood  and  marble.  Nuremberg,  which  was  the  great  center  of 
German  industry  in  the  Middle  Ages,  now  manufactures  toys, 
pencils,  electrical  machinery,  and  whatever  else  can  be  made 
without  great  expenditure  for  transportation  or  fuel. 

470.  The  Position  of  Germany.  Germany  was  the  most 
central  state  in  Europe,  and  the  country  is  for  the  most  part 
without  natural  boundaries.  A  great  army  thus  seemed  the 
price  of  national  existence.  The  sea  routes  through  the 
English  Channel  to  America  or  the  Orient  are  not  only  longer 
than  those  of  France  and  England,  but  they  are  at  the  mercy 
of  those  nations  in  case  of  w-ar. 

In    a   military   and   naval  sense,  therefore,  the  location  of 

'A  single  factory  at  Liulwigshafen  near  Mannheim  employed  over  a 
hundred  expert  chemi.sts. 


GERMANY 


425 


Germany  leaves  much  to  be  desired;  but  in  a  commercial 
sense  it  is  admirable.  This  fact,  sometimes  strangely  over- 
looked, goes  far  to  explain  the  growth  of  German  commerce. 
Transportation  by  sea  is  far  cheaper  than  transportation  by 
land;  hence  the  longer  sea  routes  of  Germany  to  the  New- 
World  and  the  Orient,  compared  to  France  or  England,  are 
more  than  offset  by  her  shorter  land  routes  to  all  central  Europe. 


Fig.  270.  Trolley  car  which  made  the  speed  of  ijo 
miles  an  hour  .  near  Berlin. 

471.  Transportation  Facilities  of  Germany.  The  rivers  of 
Germany,  in  place  of  flowing  from  a  common  center  as  in 
France,  are  in  general  parallel.  Germany  thus  lacks  one  ele- 
ment of  natural  cohesion.  Tlie  German  rivers  are,  however, 
navigable  for  long  distances  ;i  and  the  great  Midland  Canal 

'The  Oder  to  Kosel  for  400-ton  vessels;  the  Rhine  to  Mannheim  for 
1,500  tons,  Strassbtirg  for  800  tons,  Basel  for  small  vessels;  the 
Danube  to  Regensburg  for  large,  and  Ulm  for  small  vessels;  the  Elbe 
and  Vistula  to  beyond  the  German  frontier.  The  value  of  the  rivers 
for  navigation  has  been  largely  increased  by  reforesting  the  hills 
about  their  headwaters. 


426  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

System  already  largely  in  operation,  may  ultimately  connect 
all  rivers  from  the  Vistula  to  the  Rhine. ^  (Fig.  267.)  This 
canal  system  is  singularly  favored  by  an  ancient  river  valley 
extending  from  east  to  west,  where  the  waters  formerly  flowed 
along  the  edge  of  a  great  ice  sheet.  The  German  water-ways 
have  increased  their  tonnage  faster  than  the  railways;  and  the 
rates  by  water  are  much  less  than  the  rates  by  rail.  The 
Elbe  and  Rhine  have  by  far  the  largest  tonnage.  In  19 14  the 
Rhine  fleet  alone  comprised  about  10,000  vessels. 

The  railways  mostly  belong  to  the  several  states,  and  grant 
special  export  rates  on  German  goods.  The  rates  are  also 
arranged  so  as  to  direct  traffic  to  German  rather  than  foreign 
seaports. 

The  principal  railway  centers  are  Berlin  (Fig.  270),  the  most 
central  city  in  Europe,  located  in  the  middle  of  the  North 
European  plain,^  and  Frankfurt  (am-Main),  which  stands  like 
Vienna  at  the  crossing  of  the  Rhine-Danube  through  line  with 
others  connecting  the  Baltic  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean. ^ 
These  Rhine  railways  are  links  in  the  chain  of  overland  com- 
munications between  England  and  India.'*  Munich,  the 
gateway  of  Brenner  Pass,  is  the  commercial  heir  of  Augsburg 
and  the  other  mediaeval  cities  which  flourished  on  the  trade 
between  Italy  and  the  north. 

472.  The  Seaports  and  Fairs  of  Germany.  In  proportion  to 
its  size,  Germany  has  little  seacoast,  except  on  the  Baltic, 
because  the  outlet  of  the  Rhine  and  the  adjacent  coast  are 
controlled  by  foreign  states. 

'To  carry  400  tons  east  and  800  tons  west  of  the  Oder.  The 
capacity  on  the  southern  canals  at  present  is  only  no  tons  on  the 
Ludwig  Canal  (four  feet)  between  the  Rhine  and  Dantibe;  and  200  tons 
on  the  Rhine-Rhone  and  Rhine-Seine  canals,  the  latter  passing  the 
Vosges  by  a  tunnel  at  Zabem  or  Saverne. 

'^ Where  the  following  through  lines  cross:  Paris-St.  Petersburg, 
along  the  inner  edge  of  the  northern  plain;  London-Vladivostok, 
Hamburg-Odessa,  Copenhagen-Rome  (by  way  of  the  Brenner  Pass). 

^From  Liibeck  and  Hamburg  along  the  Weser,  Rhine,  and  Rhone 
to  Marseilles;  or  by  way  of  the  St.  Gothard  Ttmnel  to  Genoa. 

■•The  Orient  Express  route  from  Paris  to  Constantinople  crosses  the 
parallel  ridges  of  the  Vosges  at  Zabem  Pass  (1,325  feet)  and  the 
Black  Forest  at  Pforzheim. 


GERMANY  42? 

On  the  Rhine,  however,  Cologne,  which  was  the  most  famous 
port  of  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages,  before  the  World  War 
again  became  a  seaport  for  medium-sized  vessels  (lo  feet) ;  and 
Emden.the  cable  station  for  America,  secured  connection  with 
the  Rhine  industrial  district  by  the  Dortmund-Ems  Canal. 

On  the  Weser,  Bremen,  the  second  port  of  Germany,  together 
with  its  outport,  Bremerhaven,  handled  the  bulk  of  the  emigrant 
traffic  and  was  the  principal  market  for  tobacco  in  the  world.  It 
was  also  the  largest  market  outside  of  England  for  cotton  and  rice. 

On  the  Elbe,  although  the  coast  is  low  and  the  channel' is 
kept  open  only  by  a  constant  battle  with  the  sand,  Hamburg 
is  the  natural  commercial  metropolis  of  Europe.  It  lies  at  the 
extreme  head  of  the  North  Sea  on  the  Elbe,  which  forms  a 
water-way  through  the  mountains  into  Austria,  and  it  now 
commands  the  ship  canal  to  the  Baltic  at  Kiel.  Its  public 
dock  and  wharfage  facilities  are  among  the  finest  in  the  world. 
The  outport  of  Hamburg,  especially  in  winter  and  for  the 
largest  vessels,  is  Cuxhaven. 

(  On  the  Baltic,  Lubeck,  the  ancient  head  of  the  Hanse,  became 
once  more  a  busy  commercial  port  by  reason  of  the  Elb^-Trave 
Canal  (8>2  feet),  while  Stettin  prospered  as  the  Baltic  port  of 
Berlin  and  of  the  entire  Oder  Valley.  These  ports  are  kept  open 
in  winter  by  ice  breakers.  Kiel,  on  a  deep  fiord-like  harbor, 
is  the  Baltic  terminus  of  the  ship  canal  leading  from  the  North 
Sea  (46  feet) ;  and  was  the  chief  German  naval  station. 

The  great  fairs  of  Leipzig,  dating  from  the  Middle  Ages 
(1268),  still  draw  together  a  large  concourse  of  merchants. 
Leipzig  because  of  its  central  location  is  the  principal  market 
in  the  world  for  furs  and  imported  fur  skins,  wool,  and  similar 
animal  products. 

473.  The  Commerce  of  Germany.  The  commercial  hinter- 
land of  Germany  embraced,  in  the  first  instance,  Russia, 
Austria-Hungary,  the  Balkan  states,  and  Roumania.  These 
purchased  German  manufactures  in  return  for  food  and  raw 
materials.  The  Bagdad  Railway,  moreover,  was  planned  to 
enable  German  freight  cars  to  reach  the  Persian  Gulf  without 


428 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


unloading.  The  plans  of  German  commerce  were  in  fact 
designed  to  secure  the  domination  of  the  markets  of  the  entire 
world,  and  the  German  merchant  marine  was  made  the  advance 
agent  of  the  German  lords  of  trade  and  industry.  The  dense 
population  of  Germany  increasing  at  the  rate  of  a  million  a- 
year,  also  made  it  necessary  to  maintain  extensive  foreign 
markets  for  her  manufacturers  in  order  to  secure  the  needed 
food  supply. 

The  chief  rivals  of  Germany  in  the  commercial  world  were 
France  and  England,  in  whose  vast  overseas  trade  she  sought 

75%  15%        10% 


Exports  by  classes.. 


Manufactures 
1,618  million  dollars 


Raw 

materials 

327 


All 

others 
209 


45% 


25% 


Imports  by  classes. 


Raw  materials 

,1,181  million  dollars 


Food  stuffs 

and  animals 

733 


Manufactures 
615 


in         11° 


7%     7%   6% 


Exports  by  countries. 


To  Great]    , 
Britain 


All  Others 

847 


15% 


15%        8%     8%   5%  5%  4% 


40% 


Imports  by  countries. 


Fruai 
United 
States 
;ir,S  million 
dollars 

Russia 
361 

?>«  = 

2- 

5S 

I. 

f 

All  others 
99-1 

Data  from  Almanach  do  Gotha.  1914-15 


Fig. 271. 


Commerce  of  Germany.     Totals,  three-year  averages  {millions 
of  dollars):  exports,  2,154;  imports,  2,4^2. 


to  make  deep  inroads.  Finally,  the  ambition  of  her  auto- 
cratic rulers  unsatisfied  by  the  comparatively  slow  progress 
in  the  competition  of  international  commerce,  Germany 
launched  the  attempt  to  crush  her  rivals,  France  and  England, 
by  force  of  arms,  and  so  secure  the  control  of  additional  terri- 
tory for  commercial  and  governmental  exploitation. 

474.  Luxemburg.  Luxemburg,  on  the  Ardennes  Plateau, 
is  rich  in  coal,  iron,  and  zinc. 

It  is  neutral  territory  —  in  name  at  least  —  by  international 
agreement.     It  is,  however,  German-speaking  and  was  included 


GERMANY  429 

in  the  German  Customs  Union  and  was  thus  in  effect  a  part 
of  the  German  Empire,  as  Liechtenstein  was  of  Austria. 
Luxemburg  is  now  included  in  the  Customs  Union  of  France. 

475.  The  German  Colonies.  Trade  in  a  measure  unques- 
tionably follows  the  flag.  Still  more  does  it  follow  the 
language  merchant  ship,  and  custom  house.  Unfortunately 
for  Germany,  however,  when  Bismarck  cast  about  (1884)  for 
colonies  to  serve  as  markets  for  German  manufactures,  and 
lands  where  the  German  people  might  settle  under  their  own 
flag,  he  found  the  Temperate  zones  already  occupied  by  other 
nations.  The  German  colonies  in  East  and  West  Africa  and 
the  South  Pacific  were  consequently  of  the  plantation  type, 
not  suited  to  white  colonization.  Only  in  Southwest  Africa, 
which  is  partly  temperate,  were  there  a  few  thousand  white 
people.  Kiaochow,  though  temperate,  was  densely  peopled  by 
Chinese.  Finally  the  retention  of  these  colonies,  which  were 
occupied  by  England  or  her  allies  in  the  course  of  the  World 
War,  hinged  on  the  outcome  of  the  great  struggle  and  the 
diplomacy  of  German  representatives  at  the  peace  table. 
With  peace  Germany's  colonial  empire  of  more  than  1,000,000 
square  miles  vanished,  all  rights  and  titles  to  her  over-sea 
possessions  being  renounced  in  favor  of  the  Allied  and  Asso- 
ciated Powers. 


XXXIV— RUSSIA  AND  HER  FORMER  POSSESSIONS 

476.  Characteristics  of  Russia.  Asia  really  begins  at  the 
eastern  frontier  of  Germany  (Fig.  202)  as  Africa  does  at  the 
Pyrenees,  because  Russia  in  Europe  is  an  undivided  part  of 
the  great  Siberian  plain.  'The  ascent  of  the  Urals  is  so  gradual 
that  one  may  cross  the  range  without  seeing  a  sign  of  mountains. 
On  the  other  hand,  Russia  is  distinct  in  history  from  western 
Europe,  where  civilization  was  early  fostered  by  the  indented 
coast  line  and  sheltered  by  the  rugged  uplands. 

The  Russian  people  are  consequently  Asiatic  in  character 
and  largely  so  in  blood.  Peter  the  Great  trimmed  their  flowing 
beards  and  garments,  but  could  not  change  their  habits  of 
thought.  Not  far'  from  nine-tenths  of  the  Russian  people, 
excluding  the  Finns  and  Poles,  are  peasants  freed  (1861)  from 
serfdom.  All  are  still  almost  entirely  illiterate,  and  till  recently 
their  villages  intirs)  have  held  the  land  in  common  somewhat 
like  the  village  communities  of  India. 

477.  The  Russian  Government.  The  government  of  the 
Czars  has  been  wittily  described  as  "a  despotism  tempered  by 
assassination,"  and  its  character  seems  to  have  been  changed 
but  little  by  the  establishment  of  a  Duma  or  Parliament. 
The  title  of  Czar  is  a  corruption  of  Caesar,  Russia  thereby  hav- 
ing claimed  to  represent  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  whose 
seat  was  Constantinople;  but  the  autocratic  power  of  the 
Czar  really  came  from  the  Tatar  Khan,  to  whom  Russia  was 
long  subject.  Russia  was  in  truth  the  historical  successor  and 
heir  of  the  great  Asiatic  empires ^ — Persian,  Parthian,  Arabic, 
Turkish,  and  Mongol.  The  revolution  of  19 17,  during  the 
World  War,  deposed  the  Czar  and  since  then  people's  govern- 
ments of  different  forms  have  been  in  force. 

478.  The  Climate  of  Russia.  Russia,  like  the  United 
Stales,  has  almost  every  variety  of  climate  and  products.    The 

(43# 


RUSSIA  43 1 

mountain  ranges  of  Europe,  however,  presenting  their  ends  to 
the  west  winds,  create  no  sagebrush  deserts  as  in  America.  The 
moistiire  is  distributed  widely  over  Europe  and  Asia,  decreas- 
ing, however,  toward  the  east  and  south  except  where  the 
winds  encounter  highlands.  As  in  the  Great  Plains  region 
of  the  United  States,  Russia,  east  of  longitude  40°,  receives  most 
of  it  during  the  growing  season.  The  west  winds  likewise 
modify  the  temperature  along  the  Baltic,  while  extremes 
increase  toward  the  east.  In  Siberia  40°  F.  below  zero  and 
110°  F.  above  zero  are  both  common. 

479.  Tundra  and  Forest  Belts  in  Russia.  Along  the  north, 
both  of  Europe  and  Asia,  extends  a  belt  of  moss-covered  tun- 
dras supporting  only  reindeer.  It  also  supplies  considerable 
fossil  ivory.  Owing  to  the  severe  winters,  this  belt  reaches 
farther  south  in  eastern  Siberia.     (Fig.  17.) 

South  of  the  tundras  is  a  broad  belt  of  forests.  This  is  the 
principal  timber  and  fur  region  in  the  Old  World.  The  mari- 
time provinces  in  Siberia,  indeed,  live  chiefly  by  the  fur  trade. 
The  most  valuable  furs  are  the  sable,  marten,  and  ermine. 

480,  The  Zone  of  Mixed  Farming  in  Russia.  In  southern' 
Finland^  and  from  the  latitude  of  Petrograd  south  in  Russia, 
the  forests  have  been  largely  felled  and  mixed  farming  prevails. 
Toward  the  south,  most  of  the  land  is  in  cereals.  Special 
butter  trains  have  been  run  from  Ob'  in  Siberia  to  Riga  in  Latvia 
and  Revel  in  Esthonia,  and  special  egg  trains  from  the  south- 
western provinces  to  Hamburg,  to  supply  the  English  market. 
The  farming  methods  are  primitive.  A  crooked  stick  com- 
monly serves  for  a  plow,  a  sickle  for  a  reaper,  and  a  hand  flail 
for  a  threshing  machine.  The  three-field  system,  used  in 
western  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  long  prevailed  here, 
rye  being  followed  by  oats  or  wheat,  while  the  third  year  the 
land  lay  fallow.  Over  100  million  acres  would  thus  lie  unused 
in  Russia  every  year.  Intertilled  crops  had,  however,  begun 
to  be  substituted  for  the  year  of  fallow.  These  were  chiefly 
potatoes  along  the  German  border,''^  and  sugar  beets  around 

^Finland  in'  191 7  declared  its  independence,  which  has  now  been  rec- 
ognized by  the  leading  nations.     -  Now  Poland. 


432  Commercial  geography 

Kiev,  the  capital  of  Ukrania.  Other  industrial  crops  were  flax 
in  the  west,  and  hemp  in  the  drier  central  districts,  both  flour- 
ishing in  the  vegetable  humus  left  by  the  forests.  In  both 
crops  Russia  held  first  place.     (Figs.  272  and  273.) 

481.  Wheat  and  Grasslands  of  Russia.  South  of  a  line 
from  Kiev  to  Kazan  is  a  region  of  prairies  which  extend  into 
western  Siberia.  Here  is  the  famous  "black-earth"  district 
of  great  fertility;  but  the  southeastern  part  of  it  lies  in  the 
semi-arid  belt  and  is  consequently  subject  to  terrible  famines. 
This  district  grows  most  of  the  wheat  for  export,  though  on 
account  of  poor  tillage  the  yield  per  acre  of  wheat  was  the  lowest 


83% 

5% 

12% 

Russia 
1,283  million  pounds 

w 

X 

All 

Others 

183 

Data  from  Bureau  of  Crop  Kstiiuates,  U.S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  1915 

Fig.  272.     The  world's  flax  fiber  crop.     Total, 
three-year  averages,  1,338  million  pounds. 

63%                                             13%              16%            8% 

Russia 
728  million  pounds 

Austria- 

Hanffary 

152 

Italy 
183 

All 
others 

87 

Data  from  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates,  U.S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  1915 

Fig.  273.     The  world's  hemp  fiber  crop.     Total, 
three-year  average,  1,150  million  pounds. 

in  Europe.  (Fig.  276.)  Grapes  and  tobacco  occupied  patches 
scattered  from  Kishinev  to  Saratov.  The  northern  limit  of 
grape  growing  is  here  fixed  by  the  cold  of  winter,  while  in 
western  Europe  it  is  determined  by  the  lack  of  heat  in  summer. 

In  the  southeast  of  Europe,  beyond  the  line  of  the  Don- 
Volga  rivers  and  in  the  adjacent  parts  of  central  Asia,  are 
steppes  or  poor  grasslands  occupied  by  wandering  shepherd 
tribes  of  Mongolian  race  and  Mohammedan  religion.  These 
steppes  support  chiefly  sheep  and  goats,  besides  horses  and 
camels  for  transportation  purposes.  Russia  was  richer  in  horses 
than  any  other  country  in  Europe. 

482.  Subtropical  Russia.  Finally,  in  the  southern  Crimea, 
in  Transcaucasia,  and  Turkestan  are  sheltered  valleys,  shaded 


RUSSIA  433 

and  musical  with  the  sound  of  running  water,  forming  an  East- 
ern Italy.  Here  were  grown  in  profusion  subtropical  products 
such  as  the  vine,  olive,  mulberry  (for  silkworms),  and  cotton. 
The  principal  cereals  grown  in  this  zone  were  maize  and  rice. 
Tea  gardens  had  also  been  established  in  Transcaucasia.  This 
region  is  said  to  be  the  original  home  of  the  vine;  and  central 
Asia  furnished  a  large  part  of  the  raw  cotton  used  in  Russian 
mills.     (Fig.  84.) 

483.  Other  Resources  of  Russia.  The  Caspian  and  Volga 
abound  in  sturgeon,  yielding  caviare  (fish  eggs)  and  isinglass 
(fish  sounds  or  swim  bladders)  for  export. 

Russia  is  rich  in  minerals,  especially  mineral  fuels.  The 
petroleinn  output  around  Baku  exceeded  in  some  years  that  of 
any  other  single  district  in  the  world,  and  other  oil  pools  are 
known  in  Siberia.  (Fig.  138.)  The  coal  fields  of  European 
Russia  exceeded  in  area  those  of  the  rest  of  the  continent.  The 
iouT  principal  fields  are  the  Ural,  Tula,  Warsaw  in  Poland, 
and  the  Donets,  the  latter  containing  anthracite.  There  is 
also  an  important  field  at  Kutais  in  Transcaucasia,  and 
others  of  immense  though  unknown  extent  in  Siberia. 

Iron  ore  is  abundant  near  all  the  principal  coal  fields  and 
also  in  Finland.  Zinc  is  mined  near  the  German  frontier; 
gold  in  the  Ural  district  and  eastern  Siberia;  copper  and 
platinum  chiefly  in  the  Urals;  manganese  and  rock  salt  in 
Transcaucasia.  Russia  has  had  the  largest  output  of  gold  in 
Europe,  and  the  largest  output  of  platinum  and  manganese 
in  the  world.  (Fig.  223.)  Platinum  is  indispensable  in 
chemical  operations,  owing  to  its  resistance  to  heat  and  acids. 
It  is  therefore  worth  more  than  its  weight  in  gold.  In  addition, 
eastern  Siberia  is  said  to  contain  large  deposits,  practically 
untouched,  of  all  the  industrial  metals,  besides  graphite 
and  asbestos. 

484.  The  Manufactures  of  Russia.  Russia,  producing 
abundant  raw  materials,  naturally  had  considerable  manu- 
factures of  lumber,  flour,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  leather,  besides 
domestic  industries  such  as  Bukhara  rugs.     Russian  leather 


434  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

owes  its  peculiar  odor  to  the  birch  used  in  tanning.  Kazan, 
on  the  border  of  forest  and  prairie,  where  hides  and  bark  for 
tanning  are  available,  is  prominent  in  leather  working. 

Under  the  stimulus  of  a  high  protective  tariff,  and  aided  by- 
vast  investments  of  French  capital,  Russia  had  also  developed 
(since  1890)  important  textile  and  mineral  industries. 

The  textile  industry  was  largely  localized  in  four  districts. 
Petrograd  and  the  factory  town  of  Narva,  possessing  water 
power,  were  noted  for  linen  and  hempen  goods.  Moscow, 
near  the  Tula  coal  field,  manufactured  silks,  cottons,  and 
woolens.  Warsaw  and  the  adjacent  factory  town  of  Lodz 
made  cotton  goods.  Tifiis,  the  capital  of  Georgia  in  Trans- 
caucasia, produced  carpets.  The  consumption  of  raw  cotton 
increased  more  rapidly  in  Russia  than  it  did  in  the  United 
States,^  and  Russian  cotton  goods  competed  with  the  products 
of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  mills  in  the  Orient.  Russian 
rubber  wares  were  likewise  articles  of  export. 

The  output  of  pig  iron  more  than  tripled  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1900.  (Fig.  282.)  The  principal  iron-smelting 
center  was  Krivoi  Rog,  over  rich  iron  ores  and  near  the  Donets 
coal  field.  Arms  and  cutlery  were  manufactured  at  Tula. 
Glass  and  pottery  were  likewise  chiefly  made  on  the  coal  fields, 
though  the  Imperial  porcelain  factory  was  at  Petrograd. 

485.  Water  Ways.  Like  Canada,  Russia  is  a  country  of 
magnificent  water  ways. 

The  great  rivers  of  European  Russia,  navigable  almost  to 
their  sources,  flow  from  a  common  center  in  the  Valdai  Plateau 
(1,150  feet).  These  rivers,  moreover,  being  connected  by 
canals,  carry  light-draft  vessels  from  the  Baltic  and  Arctic  to 
the  Black  and  Caspian  scas.^  The  Volga  —  "Mother  Volga," 
the  Russians  call  it- — carried  by  far  the  largest  tonnage  not- 
withstanding its  waters  are  lost  in  a  landlocked  sea.     Next 

1  From  1 89 1  to  1900  the  increase  in  consumption  of  raw  cotton  was: 
in  Russia,  from  300  to  587  million  pounds;  in  the  United  States,  from 
1,408  to  1,656  million  pounds. 

-By  way  of  the  Vistula,  Memel,  and  Diina  to  the  Dnieper;  the  Neva 
to  the  Volga;    the  Dvina  to  the  Neva  and  Volga. 


RUSSIA  435 

come  the  Neva  and  "Father  Dnieper."  All  Russian  water 
ways  are  icebound  for  several  months  each  year. 

In  Asiatic  Russia  there  is  continuous  water  transportation 
by  means  of  the  east  and  west  tributaries,  and  an  Ob'- Yenisei 
Canal,  almost  from  the  Urals  to  Lake  Baikal.  Heavy  freight 
also  sometimes  reaches  the  Ob'  and  Yenisei  by  sea.  In  the 
main,  however,  the  Arctic  drainage  of  the  Siberian  rivers  is  a 
fatal  defect.  The  Amur,  on  the  other  hand,  by  its  eastward 
course  opened  a  route  for  Russian  expansion,  and  now  serves 
as  a  highway  of  commerce  to  the  Pacific. 

486.  Land  Transportation  in  Russia.  Wagon  roads  hardly 
exist  in  Russia,  outside  of  the  Baltic  provinces,  where  they 
are  due  to  German  settlers.  Goods  are  therefore  moved 
chiefly  in  winter  on  sledges,  but  in  central  Asia  by  camel  cara- 
vans. It  was  frost,  indeed,  which  originally  unified  the  Rus- 
sian Empire  by  favoring  rapid  transportation. 

The  level  surface  has  favored  the  construction  of  railways. 
They  are  mainly  government  property  and  for  military  reasons 
differ  in  gauge  from  those  of  Germany  and  Austria.  Both 
passengers  and  merchandise  must,  therefore,  change  cars  at 
the  frontiers.  The  railway  centers  are  Moscow  and  Warsaw 
in  Poland,  centrally  situated  in  the  Russian  and  Polish  plains. 
Samara,  located  on  the  great  eastern  bend  of  the  Volga,  is  the 
junction  point  for  the  Siberian  and  central  Asia  railways, 
though  a  line  leaving  the  Siberian  Railway  farther  north  now 
runs  direct  to  Petrograd. 

In  Transcaucasia,  Batum  and  Poti  (the  Phasis  of  the  Greeks 
where  the  Argonauts  sought  the  Golden  Fleece)  are  linked 
by  raiP  with  Baku  on  the  Caspian,  and  Baku  with  Moscow 
along  the  Caspian. ^  These  roads  have  handled  most  of  the 
commerce  of  Persia  as  well  as  the  vast  traffic  in  oil  from  the 
Baku  district.  A  pipe  line  has,  however,  been  constructed 
to  carry  petroleum  from  Baku  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  railway 
has  also  been  extended  through  Erivafi  on  to  the  Armenian 

^Through  the  Suram  Tunnel. 

^Through  Derbent  Pass,  between  the  mountains  and  the  Caspian, 
A  shorter  line  is  projected  through  Dariel  Pass  behind  Tiflis. 


436  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

plateau,  whence  Russia,  confident  in  her  "manifest  destiny," 
looked  forward  to  the  conquest  of  all  western  Asia. 

Two  Russian  railways  penetrate  central  Asia  to  Tashkend, 
one  line  branching  from  the  Siberian  Railway  at  Orenburg, 
the  other  starting  from  the  Caspian  Sea  and  skirting  the 
mountains  which  wall  in  Turkestan  on  the  south  and  east.  In 
this  region  are  Merv,  Samarkand,  Khiva,  and  Bukhara,  once 
rich  and  famous  as  centers  of  civilization  and  learning  when 
they  received  more  moisture,  and  a  vast  overland  trade  from 


Fig.  274.     Vladivostnk,  the  terminus  of  the  great 
Trans-Siberian  Railway. 

China  and  India  took  this  route  toward  Europe.     (Fig.  3.) 

These  railways  carried  much  raw  cotton  and  wool  to  Russian 

mills,  and  diverted  most  of  the  transit  trade  of  central  Asia 

from  Afghanistan^  and  India  to  Russia. 

487.     The  Siberian  Railway.     The  great  Siberian  Railway 

is  well  named  "The  Path  of  Empire."     It  is  now  completed 

around  Lake  Baikal  —  a  sheet  of  water  nearly  the  size  of  Lake 

Michigan,  where  trains  were  fonnerly  ferried  across — and  finds 

its  outlets  on  the  Pacific  at  Vladivostok  (Fig.  274.)  and  Tairen^ 

1  Leaving  the  historic  Bamian   (Hajikhak)   Pass  almost  untrodden, 

2  Crossing  the  Yablonovoi  Mountains  by  a  low  pass  (3,400  feet)  and 
going  through  the  Great  Khingan  mountains  by  a  tunnel.  Another  rail- 
way line  extends  to  Vladivostok  along  the  Amur  River,  on  soil  peopled 
by  Russians. 


RUSSIA  42>7 

(Dalny).  Through  trains  from  Paris  to  Peking  reduced  to 
about  one-fourth  (from  sixty  to  fourteen  days)  the  time  between 
London  and  north  China.  This  railway  restored  the  overland 
trade  of  Asia  to  importance  for  the  first  time  since  Vasco  da 
Gama  found  the  sea  road  to  India.  It  has  carried  into  Europe 
much  of  the  tea,  raw  silk,  and  other  commodities  which  for- 
merly went  by  sea,  and  almost  monopolized  the  passenger 
traffic  as  far  south  as  Shanghai.  The  Siberian  Railway  also 
competed  with  the  Pacific  railways  in  America,  and  with  the 
Panama  Canal,  for  trade  between  the  Orient  and  western 
Europe. 

488.  The  Seaports  of  Russia.  Russia  is  essentially  an 
inland  state.  For  centuries  its  history  has  been  dominated 
by  the  struggle  to  reach  the  ocean.  Peter  the  Great  carried 
the  frontier  to  the  Baltic;  his  successors  won  their  way,  sword 
in  hand,  to  the  Black  Sea,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Pacific. 

The  Baltic,  corresponding  in  position  to  the  Great  Lakes  in 
America,  has  been  commercially  the  most  important  sea  to 
Russia  because  it  offered  the  shortest  routes  to  Germany  and 
Great  Britain,  which  were  the  best  markets  for  Russian  prod- 
ucts. The  principal  Baltic  ports  are  Petrograd,  accessible  by 
a  channel  or  "canal"  dredged  in  the  shallow  gulf;  Riga,  an  old 
Hanse  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Diina,  the  capital  and  outlet 
of  Latvia;  Revel,  the  capital  of  Esthonia,  and  Helsingfors,  the 
seat  of  government  Finland. 

In  summer  Archangel  on  the  Arctic  is  also  an  important 
seaport,  rivaling  Riga  and  Revel  as  an  outlet  for  Siberian 
products.^ 

On  the  Black  Sea,  Odessa  (Greek  Tyras) ,  with  a  fine  artificial 
harbor,  between  the  mouths  of  the  three  main  western  rivers, 
is  the  leading  seaport,  though  exceeded  in  tonnage  by  Astrak- 
han on  the  Volga.  Odessa  ships  chiefly  grain.  Nikolaiev  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Southern  Bug  has  now  secured  deep  water, 
and  is  a  close  rival  of  Odessa.     Rostov  at  the  mouth  of  the 

1  Which  go  by  rail  to  Kotlas,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Dvina, 
and  thence  by  boat. 


438 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Don  is  also  an  important  port,  though  not  accessible  to  the 
largest  vessels. 

Russian  merchant  vessels  have  had  a  free  and  a  safe  passage 
at  the  Bosporus  in  time  of  peace.  The  only  thing  Russia 
lacked  on  the  Black  Sea,  which  possession  of  Constantinople 
would  give,  was  free  passage  in  war  and  the  power  to  exclude 
from  it  all  but  Russian  vessels,  as  she  did  on  the  Caspian. 

On  the  Pacific  the  commercial  and  naval  seaport  is  Vladi- 
vostok (Rule-the-East)  on  a  fine  land-locked  harbor  now 
available  at  all  seasons,  as  ice  breakers  keep  it  open  in  winter. 


Use  of  soil  in 
European  Russia 


Exports  by  arlick-s 


Imports  by  countries 


Russia,  Special  U.  S.  Consular  Report,  No-  61 

Fig.  275.      Use  of  soil  and  commerce  of  Russia.     Area  of  Russia  in 
Europe,  excluding  Poland  and  Finland,  1,100  million  acres. 
Commerce  in  IQ12  {millions  of  dollars):  exports,  7J4.Q, 
chiefly  to  Germany  and  Great  Britain;  imports, 
532.y,  largest  items,  raiv  cotton,  wool,  manu- 
factures, tea.    Totals  {with  Finland): 
exports,  800;  imports,  62 j. 4. 

489.  Fairs  in  Russia.  Owing  to  insufficient  facilities  for 
transportation,  the  ancient  fair  at  Nizhniy  Novgorod  on  the 
Volga  still  retains  its  importance.  It  brings  together  every 
August  several  hundred  thousand  traders  representing  every 
tongue  of  Europe  and  Asia.  At  Irbit,  east  of  the  Urals,  is  held 
in  February  a  great  fair  for  the  sale  of  Siberian  furs. 

490.  The  Commerce  of  Russia.  Russia  exported  mainly 
foodstuffs  and  raw  materials,  except  to  Asia,  where  she  acted 
"as  an  exporter  of  manufactures.  Russian  imports,  on  the 
other  hand,  aside  from  cotton,  tea,  and  fish,  were  largely 
manufactured  goods  such  as  the  Russian  factories,  owing  to 


RUSSIA  439 

lack  of  experience  and  of  technical  skill,  cannot  yet  produce. 

By  her  exports  of  grain,  eggs,  dairy,  and  other  farm  products 
Russia  was  the  chief  competitor  of  American  farm  products  in 
Eiirope.  (Fig.  275.)  Manchurian  flour  from  the  Harbin  mills 
also  disputed  the  oriental  market  with  American  flour.  Baku 
oil  is  the  leading  rival  of  American  oil  for  the  world  markets. 
Asia  favored  Russian  manufactures,  especially  cotton  goods, 
by  discriminating  port  dues,  unequal  railway  rates,  and  the 
refusal  of  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank  to  finance  only  merchants 
handling  Russian  goods.  As  exporting  nations,  therefore, 
Russia  and  the  United  States  were  not  less  opposed  in  interests 
than  they  are  in  ideals,  social  conditions,  and  political  principles. 

491.  Possessions  of  Russia.  The  expansion  of  Russia  across 
Asia  began  (1581)  before  the  first  English  colony  had  been 
planted  in  America.  Russian  Asia  was  an  integral  part  of  the 
empire,  except  northern  Manchuria,  nominally  Chinese,  also 
Khiva  and  Bukhara,  which  were  Russian  protectorates. 

In  like  manner,  the  Baltic  provinces  and  Poland  lost  every  ves- 
tige of  independence;  the  same  process  of  destroying  political 
rights  had  begun  in  Finland,  which  had  retained,  since  its  cession 
by  Sweden  (1809),  a  separate  constitution  and  parliament. 

The  Russian  Empire  embraced  more  than  half  of  Europe 
and  a  third  of  Asia,  altogether  nearly  a  sixth  of  the  world, 
with  almost  double  the  population  of  the  United  States;  and 
Siberia  was  the  only  large  area  in  the  Temperate  zone,  except 
Canada,  still  almost  unpeopled.  Russia  alone  of  the  Old 
World  nations  thus  had  room  to  grow. 

Since  the  revolution  of  19 17  Russia  has  broken  up  into  many 
parts  and  civil  war  has  been  constant,  so  that  her  industries  and 
and  trade  have  greatly  declined  or  ceased.  Of  the  republics 
that  sprung  up  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Czar  undoubtedly 
only  the  strongest  can  maintain  their  complete  independence. 


XXXV— WORLD  INDUSTRIES  AND  COMMERCE 

492.  World  Industries.  In  order  to  enjoy  the  highest 
prosperity,  each  community  is  forced  to  follow  the  industries 
for  which  it  has  the  greatest  advantages.  Different  communi- 
ties and  countries  thus  come  to  differ  as  to  their  leading 
industries  (Fig.  231).  Such  difference  constitutes  geographic 
division  of  labor,  which  forms  the  basis  of  commerce  between 
countries.  It  is  only  as  people  differ  in  their  industries  that 
they  have  occasion  to  exchange  their  products  (§56  and  §70). 

Industries  carried  on  largely  with  a  view  to  supplying  the 
needs  of  other  countries  are  world-industries,  and  the  commerce 
in  their  products  is  world-commerce.  Of  these ,  a  few  stand  out 
as  of  conspicuous  commercial  importance. 

493.  Wheat.  The  most  imperative  need  of  man  is  food; 
the  principal  foodstuffs  are  the  cereals;  and  by  far  the  most 
important  commercially  of  the  cereals  is  wheat  (§111). 

In  old  and  densely-peopled  countries,  like  France,  and 
England,  wheat  is  rotated  with  other  crops  on  the  same  soil. 
With  this  system   of  farming,   the   yield  per  acre  is  large. 


32.8  hu.  per  acre 

.10.7 

France 

SO.I 

IQ.I 

United  States 

r-t:^ 

Russia 

rn.o 

Data  from  Year  Book  of  Agriculture,  1913 

Fig.  276.     Average  yield  of  wheat  per  acre,  IQ04-IJ. 

(Fig.  276)  and  the  total  crops  arc  likewise  large.  For  this  reason, 
Europe  produces  more  than  half  the  wheat  crop  of  the  world. 
(Fig.  43.)  Nevertheless,  owing  to  the  dense  population  of 
Europe,  little  of  this  wheat  enters  international  commerce. 

(440) 


WORLD   INDUSTRIES   AND   COMMERCE 


441 


On  the  other  hand,  in  new  and  thinly-peopled  countries, 
like  the  United  States  and  Argentina,  the  yield  per  acre  is  low. 


21% 


15% 


14% 


11% 


7%      6% 


20% 


Russia 
140.7  million  bu. 

Argentina 
101.2 

United 

States 
99.6 

Canada 
72..3 

1  s 

"5  T: 

All  others 
137.2 

Data  from  Year  Books,  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1912-13 

Fig.  277.     Exports  of  wheat  and  flour.     Total,  five-year  average, 
690.7  million  bushels. 

but  modern  farm  machinery  enables  one  man  to  farm  many 
acres.  The  aggregate  crop  is  thus  far  in  excess  of  the  local 
demand.  Such  countries  are  consequently  the  principal 
sources  of  the  wheat  that  enters  international  commerce. 
Thus,  although  Europe  is  the  largest  producer  (Fig.  43)  of 
wheat,  Argentina,  the  United  States,  and  Russia  (one  of  the 
least  densely  peopled  countries  in  Europe)  are  the  principal 
exporters  (Fig.  277),  while  the  densely-peopled  countries  of 
Europe,  especially  Great  Britain,  are  the  largest  importers. 

Since  the  invention  of  plowing  and  harvesting  machinery, 
wheat  growing  has  more  than  ever  tended  to  concentrate  in 
the  plains,  where  the  level  surface  favors  machinery.  (§73.) 

494.  Sugar.  Sugar  is  not  only  a  condiment,  but  also  a 
concentrated  food,  enabling  men  (as  shown  by  tests  in  the 
American  army)  to  undergo  heavy  and  prolonged  labor  without 
exhaustion.  In  fact,  it  is  so  concentrated  a  food  that  it  has 
something  of  the  same  effect  as  a  stimulant,  which  accounts 
in  part  for  its  popularity. 

.Cane  sugar  was  originally  the  product  of  exuberant  tropi- 
cal nature  plus  cheap— that  is,  slave — labor.  To  a  great  extent 
it  is  still  a  poverty  industry,  based  on  a  rate  of  wages,  and 
therefore  a  standard  of  living  on  the  part  of  the  laborer,  far 
below  what  is  necessary  to  a  decent  civilized  existence.  In 
recent  years,  however,  the  competition  of  beet  sugar  has  com- 
pelled the  investment  of  large  capital  in  machinery,  and  the 
use  of  scientific  methods  for  the  extraction  of  cane  sugar. 

Sugar  beets  also  require  considerable  hand  labor  in  the 
fields,  because  they  must  be  thinned  by  hand.     For  this  work 


442 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


imported  laborers  are  commonly  employed  at  a  low  wage — in 
Germany,  for  example,  largely  Poles.  But  all  the  other 
operations  have  from  the  start  been  based  on  science  and  high 
technical  skill.  Beets  are  moreover  a  temperate  crop,  yield- 
ing a  large  return  per  acre ;  and  the  advantages  of  beet  culture 
are  at  the  maximum  where  beets  do  not  have  to  compete  for 
the  soil  against  corn,  either  because  the  climate  is  too  cool, 
as  in  Germany,  or  too  dry,  as  in  Colorado  and  California. 
Further,  beet  culture  is  more  profitable  where  the  soil  is 
cultivated  intensively  for  other  crops,  since  the  fertilization 
and  cultivation  necessary  for  beets  increase  the  yield  of  other 
crops;  also  where  the  beet  pulp,  after  the  juice  has  been 
extracted,  can  be  fed  to  stock;  and  finally,  where  high  technical 
skill  can  be  depended  on  for  the  manufacturing  processes. 


Cane  sugar 


Beet  sugar 


Exports  of  sugar 


Fig.  278.     Sugar  industry  of  the  world.     Totals,  fi-ve-year  averages  {millions 
of  tons):  cane,  S.j;  beet,  7.1;  total  production,  15.8;  exports,  6.2. 

For  all  these  reasons,  sugar  beets  are  perhaps  the  most  char- 
acteristic and  most  important  product  of  scientific  agriculture 
on  rich  land,  in  densely-peopled  districts  of  the  Temperate 
zone. 

As  a  result,  the  production  of  cane  sugar  is  localized  in 
countries  like  India,  Cuba,  and  Java,  while  Europe  is  the 
chief  source  of  beet  sugar.     (Fig.  278.) 

495.  Cofifee,  Tea,  and  Cocoa.  Coffee,  tea,  and  cocoa 
bck)nging  to  the  group  of  stimulants  (§113)  arc  highly  com- 
mercial crops;  that  is,  they  are  grown  on  limited  areas,  and 
in  the  main  for  the  market. 


WORLD    INDUSTRIES    AND    COMMERCE  443 

Cocoa  is  native  to  the  damp,  hot  tropical  lowlands,  and  it 
requires  much  hand  labor.  For  both  reasons,  it  is  distinctly 
a  poverty  industry  carried  on  almost  exclusively  by  colored 
laborers  (§74).  In  fact,  slavery  (in  all  but  name)  still  persists 
on  cocoa  plantations,  especially  in  the  west  African  islands. 
By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  cocoa  supply  comes  from  tropical 
America,  chiefly  Brazil  and  Ecuador.     (Fig.  185.) 

Coffee  is  also  a  tropical  plant,  but  the  best  grades  can  be 
grown  only  on  the  highlands  which  have  a  moderate  climate. 
Moreover  coffee,  having  considerable  value  in  proportion  to 
its  bulk,  is  a  favorite  crop  in  districts  remote  from  wagon  roads, 
not  to  say  railroads.  For  all  these  reasons,  coffee  has  been  the 
mainstay  of  the  small  white  farmers,  not  alone  in  Porto  Rico, 
but  throughout  Central  America  and  the  northern  part  of 
South  America.  The  success  of  Brazil  in  coffee  culture  seems, 
however,  to  indicate  that  coffee  can  be  grown  more  cheaply 
on  immense  plantations  equipped  with  light  railways  and 
other  labor-saving  machinery.  As  in  the  case  of  cocoa, 
the  bulk  of  the  world's  coffee  supply  comes  from  America,  the 
largest  producer  being  Brazil.  (Fig.  185.)  The  largest  con- 
sumer, both  of  cocoa  and  coffee,  is  the  "United  States. 

Tea  is  native  to  a  region  having  warm,  rainy  summers, 
but  a  fairly  cold  winter.  Like  cocoa  it  requires  much  hand 
labor  in  picking,  and  is  therefore  another  poverty  industry, 
which  cannot  be  carried  on  where  laborers  receive  more  than 
a  few  cents  a  day.  For  this  reason  China  and  Japan  long  had 
a  practical  monopoly  of  tea  growing.  In  India  and  Ceylon, 
however,  the  labor  is  equally  cheap;  tea  planted  on  the  high- 
lands in  a  tropical  country  bears  leaves  the  year  around  in 
place  of  only  a  few  months;  and  labor-saving  machinery  has 
been  devised  for  curing  the  tea.  These  advantages  explain 
the  present  predominance  of  India  and  Ceylon  in  tea  growing. 
(Fig  222.)  The  principal  consumers  of  tea  are  Great 
Britain  and  Russia. 

496.  Raw  Cotton.  Cotton  is  also  a  tropical  plant,  but  it  is 
now  acclimated  as  far  north  as  37''  in  America  and  40"  in  the 


444 


COMMERCIAL     GEOGRAPHY 


monsoon  region  of  Asia  (§51),  where  it  is  grown  as  an  annual. 
Indeed,  the  chief  producing  areas  are  outside  the  Tropics,  per- 
haps in  part  because  a  sharp  winter  helps  to  keep  in  check  the 
insect  pests  which  assail  the  crop.     (Fig.  84.) 

Cotton  growing  also  requires  much  hand  labor,  especially 
during  the  picking  season.  Cotton  is  therefore  limited  as  a 
commercial  product  not  only  by  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
but  also  by  the  supply  of  cheap  labor. 

497.  Cotton  Manufactures.  On  the  other  hand,  low-grade 
labor,  which  suffices  for  picking  cotton,  cannot  well  be  used  in 
cotton  manufactures.  Spinning  and  weaving  require  not  so 
much  cheap  labor  as  efficient  labor,  in  order  to  earn  the  best 
returns  on  the  capital  invested  in  machinery  Even  in  the 
south,  negroes  are  seldom  employed  in  the  cotton  mills.  For 
this  reason,  among  others,  the  chief  cotton  growing  sections 
are  not  the  chief  centers  of  cotton  manufactures,  at  least  of 
the  finer  kinds.  (Figs.  84  and  279.)  Cotton  spinning,  how- 
ever, especially  of  the  lower  counts  (coarser  thread)  has  made 
some  progress  in  countries  such  as  India,  Japan,  and  China, 
notably  since  the  invention  of  the  ring-spinning  machine, 
which  is  largely  automatic  and  therefore  requires  less  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  operator. 


Exports  of  cotton  groods 


Mill  consumption  of  Cotton  spindles 

raw  cotton 

Data  from  Dcpt.  of  Commerce,  Census  Bulletin,  No.  117 

Fig.  279.     Cotton  manufactures.     Totals  in  IQ12,  or  latest  available  year: 

mill  consumption    {millions  of  bales),' 21.5;  cotton  spindles 

{millions),  143.3;  exports  {millions  of  dollars),  I,i2y. 

The  amount  of  raw  cotton  used  in  the  mills  of  the  United 
States  is  greater  than  in  any  other  country,  but  the  British 


World  wbust&i&s  and  commerce 


445 


mills,  which  spin  the  finer  counts,  have  by  far  the  largest 
number  of  spindles.     Great  Britain,  where  the  cotton  industry 


Fig. 


Wool  Clip  Wool  exports  Wool  used  in  manufactures 

in  principal  textile 
countries 

Data  from  Tear  Book  of  Agriculture,  1907,  andCenBua  of  Manufactures,  1905,  HI,  12 

.     The  wool  industry  of  the  world.     Totals  in  igo6  or  latest 
available  year  {millions  of  pounds):  wool  clip,  2,605; 
exports,  1,683;  wool  consumption,  1,952. 


employs  a  large  part  of  the  population,  also  supplies  most  of 
the  cotton  manufactures  entering  international  commerce, 
though  Germany  had  become  a  serious  rival  before  the  war. 

498.  Wool  and  Silk.  Wool  is  in  part  a  by-product  of 
flocks  kept  primarily  for  mutton,  as  in  Europe.  In  such 
countries,  however,  the  population  is  usually  dense  and  the 
demand  for  wool  exceeds  the  supply.  The  wool  entering 
international  commerce  therefore  comes  in  the  main  from 
sparsely- peopled  countries,  especially  those  which  have  wide 
semi-arid  regions  devoted  to  stock  raising,  like  Australia  and 
Argentina.     (Fig.  280.) 

The  silkworm  is  limited  by  climate  to  districts  where  the 
trees  will  grow  on  which  it  feeds  (§105).  The  production  of 
raw  silk  on  a  commercial  basis  is  further  restricted  by  the 
price  of  labor.  A  large  amount  of  handwork  is  involved  in 
caring  for  the  worms,  hence  cheap  labor  is  indispensable. 
The  industry  is  consequently  limited  to  countries  having  a 
dense  population  and  a  low  standard  of  living,  like  China, 
Japan,  and  Italy.  (Fig.  281.)  This  is  the  reason  why  all  efforts 
at  sericulture   in  this  country   have   failed.     The  silkworm 


446 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


will  thrive  here,  but  the  raw  silk  industry  will  not,  because 
the  people  are  making  better  wages  at  something  else. 

499.    Woolen  and  Silk  Manufacture.    On  the  other  hand, 
the  manufacture  either  of  woolen  or  silk  goods  calls  for  skilled 
37%  19%  14%  7%     6%   5%  3%  3%  6% 


United  States 
19.0  million  lbs. 

France 
9.9 

Germany 
7.4 

S 
1  9 

< 

29%                                 21% 

18%                 9%          9%           9%       5% 

France 
71_million  dollars 

Switzerland 
53 

Germany 
45 

Italy 
21 

►-5 

5  n 

Data  from  Commercial  America,  June.  191  i 

Fig.  281.     Raw  silk  used  in  manufactures  and  export  of  silk  manufactures. 

Totals,  in  igio:  mill  consumption,  51.8  million  pounds;  exports, 

248    million    dollars.     ^'Others"    under    exports    means 

chiefly  China  {11  millions). 

and  intelligent  labor.  This  is  no  doubt  one  reason  why,  as  in 
the  case  of  cotton,  the  same  countries  are  not  the  most  prom- 
inent both  in  the  production  of  the  raw  materials  and  in  the 
textile  industries  using  these  materials.     (Figs.  280  and  281.) 

The  silk  and  woolen  mills  of  the  United  States  use  the 
largest  amount  of  raw  silk  and  wool.  The  finer  grades  of 
silks  and  woolens  are,  however,  more  extensively  manu- 
factured in  Europe,  especially  in  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Germany.  These  three  countries,  where  a  much  larger  part 
of  the  population  is  employed  in  silk  and  woolen  manufac- 
tures than  in  the  United  States,  controlled'^n  191 1  the  bilk  of 
the  export  trade  in  silk  and  woolen  goods. 

500.  Rubber.  Like  other  plant  products,  rubber  can  be 
produced  only  where  soil  and  climate  are  suitable;  and  most 
of  the  rubber  plants  are  tropical.  Here  again,  however,  the 
commercial  rubber  industry  is  confined  to  smaller  areas  than 
the  rubber  plant.  The  collection  of  wild  rubber  is  difficult 
and  dangerous  to  health,  yet  commands  relatively  small  wages. 
The  rubber  gatherers  in  many  districts  are  consequently 
kept  in  perpetual  debt  to  their  employers,  which  practically 
amounts  to  slavery.  The  cultivation  of  rubber  plants,  which 
has  now  assumed  great  imj^ortancc,  also  in\^olves  much  hand 


WORLD  INDUSTRIES  AND  COMMERCE 


447 


labor.  For  this  reason  it  is  practically  confined  to  countries 
of  dense  population  and  low  wage  standards,  like  parts  of 
Malaysia  and  Ceylon. 

The  manufacture  of  rubber  goods,  on  the  contrary,  calls  for 
scientific  training  and  skill.  This  fact,  as  in  the  previous 
cases,  tends  to  separate  the  countries  of  manufacture  from  the 
countries  of  origin.  Rubber  is  largely  produced  in  Brazil, 
Africa,  and  the  East  Indies,  but  undergoes  the  various  processes 
of  manufacture  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.     (Fig.  185.)  , 

501.  Minerals.  The  location  of  useful  minerals  depends 
absolutely  on  nature ;  and  so  in  part  do  transportation  facili- 
ties, which  are  indispensable  to  any  sort  of  mining.  Thus 
coal  is  the  more  valuable  if  located  near  iron  and  limestone, 
especially  if  it  be  also  near  navigable  water.  On  the  othei 
hand,  many  rich  mineral  deposits  cannot  be  worked  because 
inaccessible,  or  accessible  only  at  too  great  cost.  This  is  the 
case,  for  example,  in  many  parts  of  Alaska. 

In  the  last  analysis,  however,  while  the  location  of  minerals 
depends  on  nature,  their  utilization  depends  on  man.  Nature 
endowed  China  with  rich  mineral  resources,  but  man  has  made 
little  use  of  them  (§331).  Nature  endowed  England  with 
rich  coal  fields,  but  in  1750  many  mines  had  been  abandoned 


Iron  ore 


Fig  iron 


Steel 

Data  from  Statesman's  Year  Book,  1914 

l^'iG.  282.     The  iron  industry  of  the  world.     Totals  in'iQi2,  or  latest  available 
year  {millions  of  tons):  ore,  152;  pig  iron,  /J;  steel,  ^2. 

because,  until  the  invention  of  the  steam  pump,  they  could  not 
be  kept  free  from  water.     Finally    the  utilization  of  mineral 


448  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

resources  depends  not  only  on  the  efficiency  of  tools  and 
machinery,  but  perhaps  even  more  on  the  relative  cost 
and  efficiency  of  labor.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  the  mine 
owners  in  South  Africa  imported  Chinese  coolies. 

Minerals  having  a  large  value  in  small  bulk  can  be  mined 
(if  only  the  deposits  be  rich  enough)  wherever  a  man  and  a 
donkey  can  climb.  Gold  mining  is  thus  in  the  main  a  frontier 
industry. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  lower  the  value  of  any  mineral  in 
proportion  to  its  bulk,  the  more  completely  does  its  utilization 
depend  on  cheap  transportation,  efficient  (which  means 
expensive)  machinery,  and  either  cheap  or  highly-skilled  labor. 
These  conditions  are  only  realized  where  there  is  a  numerous 
population  and  a  considerable  accumulation  of  capital. 
In  turn,  the  utilization  of  mineral  resources  builds  up  indus- 
tries which  still  further  increase  the  population  and  wealth 
of  a  country.  Moreover,  those  minerals  such  as  coal  and 
iron,  which  have  a  relatively  small  value  per  ton,  have  fre- 
quently the  largest  value  in  the  aggregate,  because  of 
the  extended  use  made  of  them.  For  all  of  these  reasons,  the 
greatest  mining  countries  are  the  United  States,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  England.     (Figs.  138  and  282.) 

The  minerals  entering  most  largely  into  international 
commerce  are  still  the  metals,  as  they  have  always  been  (§7). 
especially  gold,  iron,  and  copper;  and,  in  addition  to  these, 
mineral  fuels. 

502.     Rank  of  Nations  in  Manufactures.     The  United  States 

clearly  ranks  first  in  the  production  of  iron  and  its  derivative 

products.     This    appears    from    the    diagram    showing    the 

world's  production  of  iron  ore,  pig  iron,  and  steel  (Fig.  282): 

and  from  the  diagrams  showing  the  consumption  of  coal  and 

the  production  of  pig  iron,  per  capital.    (Figs.  283  and  2S4.) 

The  United  States  even  takes  a  relatively  high  rank  in  the 

export  of  machinery.     (Fig.  285.) 

'It  must  be  conceded,  however,  that  part  of  the  large  consumption 
of  coal  and  iron  in  the  United  States  represents  waste  of  natural 
resources  which  could  be  in  part  a\-oided  l)y  the  use  of  water  in  place 
of  rail  transportation  for  heavy  and  bulky  commodities. 


WORLD  INDUSTRIES  AND   COMMERCE 


449 


Great  Britain  is  the  greatest  textile  manufacturing  country 
in  the  world  and  has  by  far  the  largest  export  trade  in  textiles, 
especially  cottons.  (Figs.  279  and  280.)    It  likewise  ranks  next 


United  States.  AA'a  tons 

Great  Britain .  3. 83 

Belgium 3.35 

Canada 3.32 

Gerrnariy 2.72 

Australia 1.71 

France 1.48 

Hweden 0.96 


Data  from  U.S.  Dept.  of  Commerce,  1915 

Fig.  283.    Annual  consumption  oj  coal  per  capita. 


United  States...%%^  lbs. 

Belgimn 682 

Germany 596 

Great  Britain.  AZ^ 

S'veden 275 

France. 275 

Aust. -Hungary.  .99 

Russia .54 


Data  from  U.  S.  Mineral  Resources,  1913 

Fig.  284.     Annual  production  of  pig  iron  per  capita. 

to  the  United  States  in  the  per  capita  use  of  coal,  and  leads  in 
the  export  of  machinery;  though  Germany  passed  Great 
Britain  and  in  19 13  held  second  place  in  total  production  of 
iron  and  steel.     (Figs.  282,  283,  284,  and  285.) 


30", 


29% 


5% 


Great  Britain 
142.5  million  dollars 

Germany 
119 

United  States 
110.6 

Data  from  Commercial  America,  Nov.,  1911 

Fig.  285.     Relative  exports  of  machinery.     Total  in  iQio,  468  million 

dollars. 

Germany  held  second  place  (but  second  by  a  wide  margin) 
both  in  steel  and  textiles  before  the  World  War  and  was 
clearly  first  in  the  chemical  industry,  especially  the  manufacture 
of  aniline  dyes  and  other  coal-tar  products. 

In  exports  of  manufactures.  Great  Britain  led  in  1907,  with 
Germany,  the  United  States,  and  France  following  in  order. 
(Fig.  2 86.)  It  must,  however,  be  confessed  that  most  of  the 
American  manufactures  in  question  were  foodstuffs  or  raw 
materials  but  little  elaborated  (§213).     Though  supplying  the 


45° 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


bulk  of  the  world's  raw  cotton,  the  United  States  imports 

more  cotton  goods,  especially  of  the  finer  grades,  than  it  exports. 

The  relative  rank  of  these   countries  in  manufactures  is 

partly  a  matter  of  natural  resources,  especially  fuel,  water 


Greaf  Britain 

Gerjnany 

United  States 

France 

A  ustria-H angary . 

Italy 

Japan  


i.bSq 


.740 


■  (>4S 


.228 


Fig. 


Data  fumtehed  by  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Dcpt.  of  Commerce 

Exports  of  manufactures  in  iQoj ,  stated  in  millions  of  dollars. 


power,  and  raw  materials.  Lacking  such  resources,  no  country 
can  compete  successfully  in  the  manufacture  of  machine-made 
goods.  But  these  localizations  of  industries  also  result  in 
part  from  the  human  factor  in  production.  Thus  Great 
Britain  got  a  tremendous  start  of  other  countries  not  solely 
because    of    richer    coal     fields,    but  also    because    power 


Belginjn 

Netherlands. 

Great  Britain 

Japan 

Germany. 

Italy. 

Switzerland 

A  ustria-Hungary. . 

France. 

India 

Un  ited  States 

Russia 


—31 

•  20 


-31b 


-354 


-317 
■3'3 


—iqi 
•178 


Fig.  287. 


Data  from  Statistical  Abstract  of  U.  S.,  1913 

Population  per  square  m.ile  of  principal  commercial  countries. 


machinery  was  first  perfected  in  England,  and  because 
successful  wars  assured  a  large  colonial  market  for  British 
goods.  Later  the  adoption  of  free  trade  gave  cheap 
foodstuffs     and     also     cheap     raw     materials    for    British 


WORLD    INDUSTRIES    AND  COMMERCE  451 

industries.  At  present  Great  Britain  still  has  the  immense 
advantage  of  accumulated  capital,  business  experience,  and 
business  prestige.  The  rise  of  American  manufactures  was 
due  primarily  to  abundant  water  power,  coal,  and  raw  mate- 
rials, together  with  the  inventive  talent  and  the  mechanical 
bent  of  the  people.  The  industrial  development  in  the  country 
was  greatly  hastened  by  the  protective  tariff;  although  pro- 
tection necessarily  tended,  by  increasing  the  cost  of  production, 
to  check  the  development  of  export  trade  in  manufactures. 
Finally,  in  the  case  of  Germany,  it  was  chiefly  by  reason  of  the 
human  factor  in  production,  and  especially  through  scientific 

Vniied  Stales ^>  _  Manufactures  and.Commerce  Agriculture 


France 

Gertnany 

Switzerland . 
NetherlaJtds . 


Belgium 

Great  Britain  and 
Ireland- ....-.- 


Manufactures  and  Commerce  ■ Agriculture ^11  others 


l3*                   '  HjS  '     133r 

Manufactures  and  Commerce , Agriculture  .  All  others 


38%  lijT 

Manufactures  and  Commerce        r Agriculture .All  others 


51%  '  37%  '     12% 

Manufactures  and  Commerce       i  Agriculture  All  others 


51%        "  '  ^1%  '^      18% 

Manufactures  and  Commerce        ,  Agriculture    ,        All  others 


53%                             '          21%  '  26% 

Manufactures  and  Commerce ,   Agrl.     ,  All  others 


70%  '    12%      ' 18% 

Data  from  U.  S.  Consular  Reports 

Fig.  288.     Occupations  of  people.     Note  the  relative  proportions  in  manu- 
factures and  agriculture. 

training  for  industry  and  commerce,  that  this  country  became 
within  the  space  of  a  single  generation,  one  of  the  great  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  nations  of  the  world. 

The  extent  of  industrial  and  commercial  development  in 
the  several  countries  will  appear  from  a  comparison  of  the 
density  of  population  with  the  proportion  of  people  following 
different  occupations.  (Figs.  287  and  288.)  Belgium  and  the 
Netherlands,  it  will  be  noted,  have  an  even  greater  population 
in  proportion  to  size,  than  any  of  the  larger  countries.  Such 
a  population  can  be  supported  because  Belgium  combines 
manufactures,  and  the  Netherlands  combines  a  vast  transit 
trade,  with  intensive  agriculture. 

503.  The  Organization  of  Commerce.  The  development  of 
an  export  trade  in  manufactures  depends,  not  alone  on  the 


452 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


quality  of  the  goods  and  their  price,  but  also  on  the  methods 
of  sale.  It  is,  moreover,  in  the  sales  department  that  European 
firms  doing  an  export  trade  are  especially  strong  (§300). 

On  the  other  hand,  American  manufactures  are,  as  a  rule,  of 
acknowledged  excellence,  but  most  firms  have  regarded  for- 
eign trade  merely  as  a  stop-gap  for  dull  times.  The  ruling 
idea  has  consequently  been  to  make  large  profits  on  few  sales, 
rather  than  small  profits  on  many  sales.  Foreign  commerce 
until  recently,  had  not  commanded  the  undivided  attention  of 
the  American  nation,  as  it  did  in  England  and  Germany.  These 
facts  explain  why  it  is  that,  judging  from  the  United  States 
Consular  Reports,  Americans  have  not  shown  conspicuous 
capacity  abroad  as  merchants;  yet  their  conquest  of  foreign 
markets  for  manufactures  will  depend  upon  their  ability  to 
organize  and  go  forward  as  merchants  with  the  same  energy 
and  efficiency  that  they  have  shown  as  producers. 


Belgium 

Sivitzerland. 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

France 

Netherlands 

Austria- Hungary  . 
United  States. 


•154 

•154 


474 


iqq 
193 


188 


87 


Fig. 


Data  from  Statistical  Abstract  of  U.S.,  1913 

.     Railway  mileage  per  T,ooo  square  miles  of  territory,  showing 
relative  density  of  railways. 

504.  Transportation  as  a  Factor  in  International  Com- 
merce. Transportation  in  relation  to  foreign  commerce 
usually  involves  three  things:  transportation  by  land,  ports 
where  the  commerce  of  the  land  may  connect  with  the  com- 
merce of  the  sea,  and,  finally,  transportation  by  sea. 

In  respect  to  transportation  by  land,  the  condition  of  the 
United  States  is  not  all  that  could  be  desired.  The  inland 
water  ways  are  little  used  and  the  density  of  railways  is  much 
less  than  in  Europe.  (Fig.  289.)  Neverthcless.nearly  half  the 
railway  mileage  in  the  world  is  in  the  United  States,  while 


WORLD  INDUSTRIES  A!^D  COMMERCE 


453 


railway  rates  are  lower  here,  and  railway  service  more  efficient, 
than  in  any  other  country.     (Tables  4  and  5.)     The  post  is  also 


United  states. 184.. 

Germany.;. 135., 

Great  Britain. ..A'i'i.. 

France 94.. 

Italy. 50.. 

Japan 32.. 

Spain 18., 

Russia 10.. 


Data  from  Gov.  Ownership  of  Electrical  Means  of  Communication,  Sen.  Doc.  No.  399 

Fig.  290.     Pieces  of  mail  handled  yearly  per  capita,  igio. 

more  largely  used  in  the  United  States  than  anywhere  else — an 
evidence  at  once  of  active  intelligence  and  of  greater  business 
activity.     (Fig.  290.) 

In  facilities  for  the  commerce  of  the  land  and  sea  to  meet 
and  connect,  the  United  States  is  not,  on  the  whole,  in  the 
same  class  as  the  great  nations  of  Europe.  (Fig.  292.)  This  is 
moreover  the  fault,  not  of  nature,  but  of  man.  American 
seaports  are  largely  monopolized  by  private  wharves  and 
docks.  To  compete  with  Liverpool,  Hamburg,  and  Rotterdam, 
in  export  trade  to  neutral  markets,  it  is  necessary  to  create, 
as  they  have  done,  commodious  free  harbors  where  any  vessel 
may  load  or  discharge  cargo  promptly  and  cheaply  without 


rs 


ss 


so 


New  York 

Hamburg. 

Rotterdam 

Antiverp 

Hong-ko7ig. 

Constantinople.. 

London 

Shanghai. 

Singapore. 

Marseilles. 

Cardiff.. 

Liverpool. 


2S.8 


•31.6 


-23-0\ 

'■9\ 


•27-4 


-,b.4 
•lb. 2 


iS.(} 


\J9-S 


■'5-4 


Id.O 


Data  from  U.S.  Statistical  Abstract,  1913 

Fig.  291.     Rank  of  world's  greatest  seaports,  measured  by  millions  of  net 

registered  tonnage  in  foreign  trade,  IQ12,  or  latest  available  year. 

A II  having  over  fourteen  million  tons  entered  and 

cleared  are  shown. 

being  dependent  on  costly  private  terminals.     In  New  York 
some  steps  have  already  been  taken  to  provide  such  facilities. 


454 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


In  the  matter  of  transportation  by  sea,  the  United  States 
was  still  more  poorly  equipped.  The  other  nations  taking  an 
active  part  in  world  commerce  all  had  large  fleets  of  merchant 
vessels.  (Fig.  292 .)  The  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
few  sea-going  merchant  vessels  aside  from  those  engaged  in  the 
coasting  trade,  which  is  reserved  by  law  to  American  vessels. 
It  costs  more  to  build  ships  here  than  in  Europe;  and  it  costs 
more  to  operate  them,  because  the  standard  of  living  and  the 
scale  of  wages  are  both  higher  in  this  country.  As  a  result, 
in  many  parts  of  the  world  the  American  flag  had  become  a 
strange  and  unaccustomed  sight.     The  annual  payment  to  for- 


^s 


Great  Britain. 

Gcrniaity 

United  States... 

Nortvay 

France 

Italy 

Japan 

Russia 

All  others 


.2.9 


•/•7 


.5.4 


Q.8 


19-3 


Data  from  Lloyd's  Register,  1914-15 

Fig.  292.     Sea-going  tonnage  of  chief  commercial  nations.     Total  in  iqta, 

46./  million  ions.     Nearly  all  the  Americait  tonnage  is  in  coastwi^; 

service,  where  American  vessels  have  a  monopoly  by  law. 

eign  ship  owners  for  carrying  American  goods  was  estimated  to 

be  150  milhon  dollars^:    and  the  losses  to  American  industry 

from  the  lack  of  adequate  shipping  facilities,  and  from  the 

discriminating  rates  often  charged  by  foreign  vessels,   must 

have  largely  exceeded  that  amount.^ 

505.     The  Two  Currents  of  World  Commerce.     Commerce 

is  based  on  unlikeness  of  products ;   and  unlikeness  of  products 

has  two  principal  causes  (§56). 

1  By  W.  W.  Bates,  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Navigation.  In  thirty 
years  this  expenditure  has  amounted  to  4,500  millions,  according  to 
the  estimate.  Fisk,  Commercial  Policies,  estimates  the  annual  pay- 
ment at  200  million  dollars.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  all  such 
estimates  arc  little  better  than  guesswork. 


WORLD    INDUSTRIES    AND    COMMERCE  45S 

Some  countries  differ  in  products  because  they  have 
reached  different  stages  of  industrial  development.  Thus 
western  Europe,  where  modem  methods  of  manufacture  were 
first  applied,  is  still  the  greatest  manufacturing  district  in 
the  world,  selling  manufactured  goods  to  the  less  developed 
countries  to  the  eastward,  and  also  to  the  westward  in 
America  and  Australia,  and  buying  in  return  foodstuffs, 
cotton,  and  other  raw  materials.  The  current  of  commerce 
created  by  such  difference  in  economic  development  flows 
for  the  most  part  in  an  east  and  west  direction  and  is  at 
present  the  more  important. 

A  second  reason  why  countries  differ  in  products,  and 
consequently  engage  in  commerce  with  one  another,  is  climate 
and  natural  resources.  For  example,  difference  in  climate  is 
the  basis  of  the  trade  between  the  West  Indies  and  the 
United  States,  and  also  of  the  oriental  trade  which  connects 
tropical  Asia  with  temperate  Europe.  Unless  diverted  in 
some  manner,  the  current  of  commerce  based  on  climate 
naturally  flows  in  a  north  and  south  direction. 

This  current  of  commerce  based  on  climate  is  at  present  less 
important  than  one  would  expect  from  the  rich  natural 
resources  of  tropical  countries,  by  reason  of  the  human  factor — 
the  character  of  the  inhabitants  in  the  Torrid  zone,  barbarous 
if  not  savage,  having  few  wants,  and  therefore  indisposed  to 
labor.  Nevertheless  commerce  based  on  climate  promises  in 
the  not  distant  future  to  become  the  more  important:  for 
Europe  is  slowly  losing  its  preeminence  in  manufacturing, 
but  difference  in  climate  is  permanent,  and  its  influence  on 
commerce  is  not  to  be  avoided  by  any  wit  of  man. 


XXXVI— THE  WORLD  WAR 

"War's  a  game  which  were  their  subjects  wise,  kings  would  not  play  at." 

— Cowpcr. 

506.  Effects  of  War.  War  is  the  enemy  of  trade  and 
commerce.  It  strikes  at  the  heart  of  industry  and  stifles 
production  of  all  things  not  essential  to  the  combatants.  It 
blocks  harbors  and  curtails  the  freedom  of  the  seas.  It  alters 
the  purchasing  power  of  money  and  causes  great  disparity  of 
prices  throughout  the  markets  of  the  world. 

War  sets  the  world  back,  for  a  time,  to  the  stage  when 
robbery  instead  of  barter  w^as  the  order  of  the  day.  Yet,  in 
certain  countries,  world  industries  entering  into  international 
commerce  may  thrive  during  a  war  to  an  extent  far  greater 
than  is  possible  in  time  of  peace.  As  a  result,  these  countries 
may  reap  enormous  profits  and  attain  a  phenomenal  trade 
balance. 

Out  of  every  great  conflict  has  grown  a  situation  that  in 
a  greater  or  less  degree  parallels  the  present.  Except  in  mag- 
nitude, therefore,  the  effects  of  the  World  War  on  commerce 
will  undoubtedly  be  much  the  same  as  those  of  all  other  wars. 
Because  of  the  number  and  the  importance  of  the  nations 
involved,  the  stupendous  sums  of  money  spent,  and  the  appall- 
ing loss  of  life  and  property,  the  effect  on  the  commercial 
conditions  of  the  world  may  be  greater  and  more  far-reaching 
than  that  of  any  war  that  preceded  it.  The  basis  on  which 
changes  in  boundaries  are  made  will  determine  their  perma- 
nency. Commercial  prejudice  against  Germany  and  Austria 
may  perhaps  disappear,  but  the  loss  of  areas  great  in  industrial 
and  commercial  significance  must  long  affect  the  standing  of 
these  countries  among  the  nations  of  the  world. 

507.  World  Conditions  To-day.  Conditions  are  now  (1920) 
unsettled  throughout  large  portions  of  Europe  and  Asia.     New 

456 


THE    WORLD    WAR  457 

nations  and  new  boundaries  have  been  formed  under  treaties 
(Fig.  294),  and,  largely  through  the  spread  of  Bolshevism,  many 
of  these  countries  are  in  a  state  of  disorganization.  The  extent 
and  permanence  of  European  spheres  of  influence  in  Asia  are 
still  largely  undetermined.  Unrest,  economic  as  well  as  polit- 
ical, has  spread  over  the  earth,  seriously  interfering  with 
industry  and  commerce. 

508.  Political  Changes  Due  to  the  World  War.  The  war 
involved  so  much  of  the  world  that  many  political  changes 
resulted.  (Fig.  294.)  Forty-five  of  the  55  million  square  miles 
of  the  land  area  of  the  globe  belong  to  nations  that  were  engaged 
in  the  struggle,  and  much  of  the  remaining  7  million  square 
miles  was  seriously  affected. 

Had  Germany  won  the  World  War,  she  would  have  been 
able  to  control  equatorial  Africa  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  But,  with  the  loss  of  all  her  overseas  posses- 
sions, German  East  Africa,  now  in  large  part  administered  as 
Tanganyika  by  Great  Britain  and  in  part  by  Belgium,  is  no 
longer  a  menace  to  progress,  and  the  Cape  to  Cairo  railroad 
can  be  completed.  This  means  much  in  the  industrial  and 
commercial  development  of  Africa. 

Germany's  dream  of  being  the  great  Middle  Europe  power 
has  vanished.  (Fig.  293.)  Her  schemes  for  establishing  a 
German  highway  through  Turkey,  §yria,  and  Mesopotamia 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  for  gaining  control  of  India  and  China, 
and  for  dominating  South  America  commercially  and  politically 
have  been  thwarted. 

As  a  result  of  the  war  Alsace-Lorraine  is  restored  to  France 
with  frontiers  as  they  were  before  187 1.  (Fig.  295.)  Thus 
France  has  gained  not  only  much  mineral  wealth,  but  great 
commercial  advantages,  for  Alsace  connects  the  Paris  basin 
with  Central  Europe.^  In  addition,  France  has  been  given 
control  of  the  Sarre  Valley,  an  important  industrial  region. 
This  is  to  remain  in  French  possession  until  its  permanent 
status  is  determined  by  popular  vote. 

^Blanchard  and  Todd,  Geography  of  France  (1919),  p.  146. 


458,  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Belgium  was  ceded  some  territory  on  the  German  border,  and 
by  a  plebiscite,  or  popular  vote,  Denmark  regained  a  portion 
of  Schleswig.     (Fig.  294.) 

Austria-Hungary  (p.  381)  (Fig.  296)  has  been  partitioned  so 
that  the  republic  of  Austria  comprises  only  about  34  thousand 
square  miles  in  the  western  mountainous  part  of  the  Dual 
Monarchy.  Hungary  has  an  area  of  about  100  thousand 
square  miles  largely  in  the  Danube  plain.  (Fig.  294.)  Nomi- 
nally a  republic,  Hungary  has  been  in  such  a  state  of  political 
upheavel  that  she  has  been  able  to  carry  on  but  little  commerce. 

Transylvania,  Bukowina,  and  a  part  of  the  Banat,  formerly 
included  in  the  Dual  Monarchy,  and  Bessarabia,  Russian  terri- 
tory, have  been  made  a  part  of  Roumania  (Fig.  294),  thus 
doubling  the  area  of  the  kingdom  and  also  doubling  the  number 
of  inhabitants. 

^  Czecho-Slovakia  bids  fair  to  become  an  important  factor 
in  world  commerce  because  it  includes  extensive  industrial 
areas  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia.  (Fig.  294.)  Much  has 
already  been  accomplished  toward  bringing  about  economic 
stability.  In  the  first  half  of  the  year  191 9  Czecho-Slovakia's 
foreign  trade  reached  almost  half  a  billion.  Nearly  one-half 
this  trade  was  with  Austria,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  exports  of 
things  essential  to  that  needy  country.  Prague  has  made 
such  an  extraordinary  growth  in  population  and  industries 
that  it  is  proposed  to  hold  semiannual  fairs  there  to  exhibit 
commercial  wares.' 

The  Serb-Croat-Slovene  Kingdom,  or  Jugo-Slavia,  is  the 
only  large  country  carved  out  of  the  former  Austria-Hungary 
that  touches  the  sea,  and  even  this  short  seacoast  may  be  lost 
because  of  Italy's  ambition  to  control  the  Adriatic.  (Fig.  294.) 
The  result  of  the  hard-won  struggle  of  the  Serbs  finally  is  an 
uncertain  freedom. 

Under  the  decision  of  the  Peace  Conference  Italy  regained 
ItaHa  Irredenta  —  unredeemed  Italy.  (Fig.  294.)     This  added 

^U.  S.  Commerce  Report,  April  27,  1920. 


oMOSCOW 

US     S    I   A 


'pARis  '%;tiiM5t5i§iSp^reNNA|m^ 


FRANC 


iROUMANiXii 


Fig.  293.     Mittel-Europa 

The  map  shows  the  nearest  approach  (June,  1918)  to  a  realization  of  the  Pan- 
German  dream  of  Mittel-Europa.  With  the  advance  of  the  British  and  Arabs  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  the  structure  which  the  Germans  had  erected  collapsed. 


R,';s.J.   '.; 


Fig.  294.     1 


be  in  ig20 


K:ir'> 


.an 


S^UXEMBOURO; 


■|!it=^ 


'</      /^    #w/  K 


♦•^  HAUTE    SA  6  N  E^'^^^lj 


Taken  by 
Germany 

Retained  by 
France 


«; 


D  0  U  B  S      /SWITZERLAND 
/ 


Fig.  295.     Alsace-Lorraine  Before  and  After  1871 

By  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort,  signed  May  10,  1871,  following  the  defeat  of  France, 
Germany  secured  about  one-third  of  Lorraine  and  all  of  Alsace  with  the  exception 
of  the  fortress  f  Belfort  and  surrounding  territory  23s  square  miles  m  extent.  By 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  this  territory  was  restored  in  its  entirety  to  France. 


460  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

26  hundred  square  miles  of  area  and  580  thousand  inhabitants 
to  the  kingdom. 

With  the  acquisition  of  Thrace  and  the  large  Smyrna  area  on 
the  east  of  the  .^gcan  Sea — formerly  possessions  of  Turkey — a 
■  zone  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  cession  by  Italy  of  the 
twelve  smaller  Dodecanese  islands,  Greece  has  become  the 
leading  ^gean  power.  By  the  addition  of  these  territories 
her  former  area  has  been  increased  twofold.  (Fig.  294.) 

As  a  result  of  the  war  Turkey  (Fig.  297)  has  been  reduced  to 
the  status  of  a  minor  power.  Her  only  possessions  are  Anatolia, 
Constantinople,  and  the  fortified  area  of  Thrace  —  Chatalja 
to  Constantinople.  (Fig.  294.)  In  area  Turkey  now  compares 
with  new  Greece. 

Russia  has  been  in  a  woeful  state  of  disorder  since  the 
revolution  and  the  creation  of  the  Soviet  government  in  19 17. 
A  large  number  of  separate  states  have  been  formed  from  the 
areas  that  made  up  the  Russian  Empire.  (Fig.  294.)  These 
states  have  nearly  all  declared  themselves  republics.  Geo- 
graphically and  racially  many  have  excellent  reasons  for  a 
separate  existence,  but  few  are  likely  to  survive  long  as  inde- 
pendent political  units.  The  new  republic  of  East  Siberia,  or 
Trans-Baikal,  may  continue  because  it  would  act  as  a  buffer 
state  between  Japan  and  any  strong  nation  to  the  west. 
Esthonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania  all  have  strategic  positions 
on  the  Baltic.  In  time  these  republics  will  doubtless  form  an 
alliance,  commercial  or  otherwise,  with  Russia.  The  Black 
Sea  and  Caucasus  republics  include  much  valuable  mineral 
and  agricultural  land.  At  present  Great  Britain  dominates 
the  Black  vSea  region  despite  the  Bolshevik  advance. 

It  is  interesting,  in  view  of  existing  conditions  in  Russia, 
to  note  that  in  19 19  the  great  annual  fair  at  Nizhniy  Novgorod 
(p.  10)  broke  all  records  for  trade  and  attendance.  During 
the  fair  goods  valued  at  60  mil-lion  dollars  changed  hands. 

Finland  with  an  area  of  125  thousand  square  miles  (Fig.  294), 
and  outlets  to  the, sea  through  the  Baltic  and  to  the  Arctic  l;)y 
way   of   Pcchcnga   \^allcy   promises   to   become   a  commercial 


462  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

country  of  world-wide  importance.  Her  trade  with  the  United 
States  in  191 9  amounted  to  10  milHon  dollars,  chiefly  imports. 
The  prosperity  of  the  country  is  largely  dependent  upon  the 
forests,  which  cover  40  million  acres  and  are  the  chief  source  of 
her  export  trade. 

Poland  is  now  a  republic,  uniting  areas  belonging  to  tne 
Polish  Kingdom  before  its  partition  among  Russia,  Germany, 
and  Austria  (Figs.  298  and  299)  which  are  predominantly 
Polish  in  nationality.  The  country  extends  to  the  Baltic, 
(Fig.  294)  but  most  of  the  sea-borne  trade  goes  by  way  of  the 
Vistula  through  the  free  city  of  Danzig.  At  present  industry 
and  trade  are  almost  at  a  standstill  throughout  the  country 
because  of  the  war  with  Russia.  The  destruction  of  life  and 
industrial  and  agricultural  property  threatens  the  future 
prosperity  of  the  country. 

509.  Effects  of  the  World  War  on  Commerce.  During  the 
early  part  of  the  war  the  United  States  profited  greatly  from 
the  sale  of  munitions  and  foodstuffs  to  the  Allies.  Although 
there  was  a  sharp  decrease  in  all  trade  at  the  outset  of  the  war, 
the  United  States  also  benefited  through  shipments  of  prod- 
ucts that  formerly  had  been  leading  exports  of  Germany. 

Other  neutral  countries,  such  as  Argentina,  gained  much 
trade  during  the  war  because  of  increased  demands,  high  prices, 
and  lack  of  competition.  But  normal  world  trade  practically 
ceased  to  exist.  German  submarines  menaced  all  boats  bound 
for  Europe  until  the  closing  months  of  the  war,  and  trade 
between  neutral  countries  was  carried  on  with  increasing 
difficulty  because  of  the  strict  and  sometimes  illegal  search  for 
contraband  or  war  material  and  by  the  transfer  of  many  boats 
from  commercial  to  war  service. 

Sixteen  of  the  warring  countries  contracted  new  obligations 
to  the  extent  of  212  billion  dollars,  or  about  S330  per  capita. 
The  share  of  the  Allied  countries  in  this  vast  sum  is  about 
1 50  billion,  or  about  S300  per  capita,  and  of  the  Central  Powers 
about  $428  per  capita. 

Germany's  per  capita  debt  is  33  times,  Great  Britain's  10 
times,  and  that  of  the  United  States  21  times  what  they  were 


Fig.  298.     The  Partitions  of  Poland,  ly/z-iygs 

The  areas  which  remained  predominantly  Polish  in  nationality  after  these  par- 
titions, were  at  the  close  of  the  World  War,  erected  into  the  Republic  of  Poland. 


Tal<en  by  PruSsU,  ■ 


AUSt 


Fig.  299.     The  Grand,  Duchy  of  Warsaw  and  its  Final  Disposition 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw  was  erected  by  Napoleon  and  at  his  downfall 
became  the  prey  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.  _  The  portion  falling  to  Russ'i  was 
made  a  kingdom  under  Russian  control  and  remained  so  until  183 1,  when  it  became 
a  Russian  province.     The  republic  of  Cracow  was  occupied  hy  Austria  in  i"48. 


464  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

before  the  war,  but  the  debt  of  the  United  States  includes 
more  than  9  billions  loaned  to  the  Allied  governments.  Japan 
is  the  only  important  country  that  emerged  from  the  great 
struggle  with  finances  undisturbed  as  far  as  war  debt  is  con- 
cerned. 

The  world's  currency  is  so  inflated  that  while  paper  money 
in  circulation  has  increased  more  than  37  billion  dollars,  the 
increase  in  the  gold  held  in  reserve  has  been  only  3  billion 
dollars.  Only  about  one-tenth  of  the  paper  currency  of  the 
world  is  covered  by  gold. 

510.  Leading  Commercial  Countries.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  the  United  States  stood  at  the  head  of  the  commercial 
countries  of  the  world.  Our  foreign  trade  for  igig  exceeded 
10  billion  dollars,  or  more  than  one-seventh  of  the  world's 
trade.  Our  trade  balance  previous  to  191 5  had  always  fallen 
far  below  one  billion  dollars.  In  that  year  it  leaped  to  more 
than  two  billion,  and  since  then  has  increased  until  in  19 19 
it  reached  four  and  one-half  billion  dollars.  This  trade  bal- 
ance is  greater  than  the  amount  of  our  total  trade  for  19 16, 
and  is  almost  double  that  for  19 13.  Of  course  this  was  an 
abnormal  trade  balance.  It  was  due  in  part  to  the  depres- 
sion of  European  industries,  so  that  foodstuffs  and  other 
necessaries  formed  the  larger  part  of  our  exports. 

In  spite  of  her  gigantic  losses  because  of  the  war,  the  British 
Empire  made  great  commercial  and  economic  gains,  although 
her  statesmen  now  face  the  difficult  problem  of  holding  within 
the  empire  all  its  present  lands  and  resources.  But  England 
is  back  at  work.  Her  factories  are  sending  out  manufactured 
goods,-  she  is  lending  money  to  smaller  countries,  and  is,  as 
before  the  war,  the  great  factor  in  international  commerce. 

France,  with  the  addition  of  her  new  territory,  now  has, 
comparatively  speaking,  abundant  iron,  but  insufficient  coal, 
the  relation  between  these  important  factors  of  commerce 
remaining  the  same  as  before  the  war.  On  the  other  hand, 
Gcmiany  now  possesses  more  coal  than  she  needs  for  her 
limited  supply  of  iron,  although  she  lacks  an  adequate  supply 


THE    WORLD    WAR  465 

of  both.  In  fact,  Lorraine's  yield  of  iron  ore  was  more  than 
70  per  cent  of  the  total  of  all  iron  ore  mined  annually  in 
Germany. 

The  war  gave  great  impetus  to  South  American  commerce. 
It  also  made  the  people  nationally  more  self-sustaining  and 
diversified  their  industries,  especially  in  Brazil  and  Argentina. 

Commercial  conditions  in  the  Orient  cannot  become  stable 
until  the  trouble  caused  by  Japanese  aggression  in  China, 
especially  in  Shantung,  is  settled.  The  Chinese  silver  monetary 
standard  helped  that  country  in  a  commercial  way  because 
of  the  exchange  value  of  silver.  Prospects  for  increasing 
importance  of  Asiatic  trade  seem  favorable  because  of  the 
unexploited  resources  of  the  continent.  The  recent  critical 
situation — the  result  of  over-production  and  over-credit — in 
Japan  caused  little  reaction  in  other  countries,  although  it 
occurred  at  a  time  when  business  in  the  United  States  was 
seriously  handicapped  because  of  strikes,  shortage  of  coal, 
and  restriction  of  shipments. 

511.  Looking  Ahead.  Conditions  that  existed  in  the 
United  States  after  the  Civil  War  may  help  in  forecasting  the 
economic  course  of  the  w^orld  during  the  coming  decades. 
The  country  at  that  time  was  confronted  by  many  grave 
problems,  and  naturally  there  was  an  anxious  period  of  read- 
justment. The  men  of  the  6o's  returned  from  the  battle- 
fields eager  for  the  surroundings  of  peace,  but  filled  with  the 
spirit  of  adventure  and  made  keenly  alert  by  their  experiences. 
Construction  soon  took  the  place  of  destruction,  railroad  build- 
ing went  forward  with  surprising  rapidity,  many  important 
industries  were  established,  there  were  many  wonderful  inven- 
tions made,  the  ex-service  men  returned  to  industrial  life  with 
a  new  appreciation,  and  the  settlement  of  the  West  went 
forward  rapidly. 

A  similar  movement,  but  one  much  more  far-reaching  because 
of  the  many  nations  and  the  vast  areas  involved,  doubtless  will 
follow  in  the  wake  of  the  World  War.  Construction  and 
pioneering  will  be  aided  by  the  wireless,  airplane,  motor  power, 


466  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

and  the  multitude  of  inventions  tried  out  and  perfected  in  the 
space  of  little  more  than  half  a  century  since  the  Civil  War. 
Wireless  communication  with  points  hitherto  inaccessible  will 
stimulate  commerce  and  draw  the  peoples  of  the  earth  together 
as  never  before.  This,  the  twentieth  century,  is  indeed  an 
age  of  machinery  and  speed  in  which  conditions  of  life  alter 
rapidly — an  age  which  in  its  possibilities  is  fascinating,  but 
which,  like  any  other  age,  has  its  own  peculiar  dangers.  Read- 
justment has  already  begun,  and  the  nations  having  entered 
upon  an  era  in  which  a  state  of  war  is  exceptional,  we  may 
look  forward  confidently  to  continued  as  well  as  wide-spread 
and  unparalleled  advancement. 

To-day  the  commercial  world  is  face  to  face  with  many 
perplexing  and  perilous  questions.  Conditions  among  the 
nations  do  not  warrant  unbounded  confidence  that  serious 
difficulties  will  not  arise  to  interfere  with  economic  advance- 
ment. But  over-production  in  any  essential  industry  appears 
unlikely.  There  is  an  unprecedented  demand  for  construction 
work  of  ■  all  kinds ;  shipyards  are  hastening  the  building  of 
merchantmen,  and  many  agricultural  areas  that  lay  dormant 
during  the  war  arc  becoming  centers  of  activity  for  the  pro- 
duction of  food.  New  areas  are  being  developed,  and  natural 
geographic  conditions  again  are  beginning  to  control  commerce. 
In  the  face  of  such  a  situation  the  prospects  for  world  trade  are 
encouraging,  for  stocks  of  many  kinds  are  so  depleted  that  it 
must  be  years  before  supplies  are  again  normal. 


PART  III 

APPENDIX 

REFERENCE  TABLES 

Table  I.     Values  of  Principal  Foreign  Coins 


Country 


Monetary 
unit 


Argentina. 


Austria-Hungary. 
Belgium 


Brazil 

British  Possessions 

N.  A.  except  N.  F. 
Chile 


Peso 

Crown 

Franc 

Milreis 

Dollar 
Peso 


China Tacl 

France : Franc 

German  Emnire Mark 

Great    Britain Pound  Sterling 

Greece 

India,    British.  .  . 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

Philippine  Islands 

Russia 

S;)ain 


Value  U.  S 
gold  do!s. 


Drachma 

Pound  Sterling 

Lira 

Yen 

Peso 

Florin 

Peso 

Ruble 
Peseta 


$0,965 

.203 

•  193 

.54'' 

I  .  000 
.365 

.625 

.10.5 

.2.vS 

4.86()i 

■  iy3 

4.866^ 

■  193 
.49S 
.498 
.  402 
.500 

•  SIS 

■  193 


Coins 


Gold:  Argentine  ($4,824),  \  Argen- 
tine.    Silver:  Peso  and  division^. 

Gold:  10,  20,  and  100  crowns.  Sil- 
ver:   I,  2,  and  S  crowns. 

Gold:  10  and  20  francs.  Silver: 
I  and  s  francs. 

Gold:  5,  10,  and  20  milreis. 
Silver:     i,  i,  and  2   milreis. 


Gold:     Escudo     (Si. 823),      doub- 
loon  ($3,650),  condor  (S7.300). 

Silver:     Peso  and  divisions. 
Silver. 

Gold:   5,  10,  20,  50,  100  francs. 
Gold:    5,  10,  and  20  marks. 
Gold:   Sovereign  (pound  sterling, 

^  sovereign.     Silver:  i  shilling). 
Gold:   5,  10,  20,  so,  100  drachmas. 

Silver:    5  drachmas. 
Gold:    Sovereign  (pound  sterling). 

Silver:   rupee  and  divisions. 
Gold:      5,     10,    20,    so      100    lire. 

Silver:      5  lire. 
Gold:     5,  10.  20  yen.      Silver:     10, 

20,  and  50  sen. 
Gold:     5    and    10    pesos.     Silver: 

Dollar  or  peso,  and  divisions. 
Gold:      10   florins.     Silver;    2^,    i, 

and  divisions. 
Silver:     Peso,  10,  20,  50  centavos. 
Gold:      5,  7^-,  10,  I  5  rubles.   Silver: 

5,  10,  15.  20,  25,  50,  TOO  copecks. 
Gold:  25  pesetas.   Silver:  5  pesetas. 


Table  2.     The  Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures 


Length 

Meter 1. 00     yd. 

Kilometer 0.621  mi. 

AVeiglits 

Kilogram 2.204  'bs.  av. 

Quintal 220.4 

Tcnneau 2,204.6  " 


Square  Measure 

Are 0247      acre 

Hectare 2.47  acres 

Sq.  Kilometer 3S6  sq.   mi. 

Capacity 

Hectoliter  diq.") 26.417   gals 

"  (dry) 2.037   Iju. 


Table  3.     Tons  and  Tonnage 

In  ocean  commerce  the   tonnage  of  a  vessel  is  expressed    in   tons — the  vessel  totj 

and   the  car.i;c)  ton. 
Vessel   Tonnai^e  — 

Dtsplacemcni — Weight  of  water  displaced  by  vessel   when  loaded. 

Gross  Rcgiiler — Total  cubic  feet  capacity  divided  by   jc-c^. 

Net  Register — Cubic  feet  capacity  available  for  cargo  and  passengers  divided  by  100. 
Cargo   Tons — Weight  for  grains  and  minerals  : 

Short  Ton  =  2,000  lbs. 

Long   Ton  =  2,240  lbs. 

Metric  Ton  =    2,204.6  lbs. 

Meastircyncnt  Ton — For  manufactures  and  general  merchandise:  40  cubic  feet. 
Ton  mile — One   ton  of  freight  carried  one  mile. 

(  xiii) 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Table  4.    The  Area,  Population,  Railway  Mileage, 

(For  1913,  or  nearest  available  year,  and  based  on  Statesman's  Year  Books, 


Grand  Divisions 


Population 


Population 

per  square 

mile 


Railways 


North  America 

Canada 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador 

United  States  (i) 

Alaska 

Panama  Canal-(i),  (3) 

Virgin  Islands  (West  Indies) 

Mexico 

Central  America,  except  Panama*  .  . 

Panama  (4) 

West  Indies 

Cuba 

Haiti  (5) 

Dominican  Republic 

Porto  Rico 

British,  and  Bermudas 

Dutch 

French ' 

South  America 

Argentine  Republic 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chile : 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Guiana  (British,  Dutch,  French^)  ,  .  . 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Falkland  Islands 

Oceania 
American 

Hawaii 

Tutuila  and  Guam 

British 

Australia  and  Territory  of  Papua. 

New  Zealand 

Fiji  and  Gilbert  Islands,  etc 

French  Possessions 

German  Possessions 

Asia 
Malay  Archipelago 

American  Philippines 

British  Borneo 

Dutch:  Java,  Sumatra,  etc 

Portuguese  Timor 

Japan  Proper 

Taiwan  (Formosa) 

Chosen  (Korea)   

Karafuto 

Chinese  Republic  (13) 

''"le  Eighteen  Provinces 

Manchuria 

Mongolia 

Tibet 

Sinkiang 

Russia  in  Asia  (i.;) 

Sil)eria 

Central  Asia 


8,598,965 

3,729,665 

162,734 

3,026,789 

590,884 

436 

13H 

785,881 

180,588 

32.380 

44,164 

10,204 

18,04 

3,435 

12,246 

403 

1.073 

7.342,5 

1,153.119 

514.155 

3,290,564 

292,580 

440,846 

116.000 

160,600 

165,000 

722,461 

72.153 

398.594 

7.500 

3,304.669 

6,449 
287 

3.065,121 

104,751 

22,791 

8,744 

96,160 

IS. 728, 74 

115,026 
73.106 

736,400 
7.330 

I48.-756 
13.944 
84.738 
13.253 


135.431.934 

8,075,000 

247.541 

97.163,330 

64,603 

63.390 

27,086 

15.501,684 

4.959,151 

336.742 

2,382,990 
2,500,000 

708.000 

1,168,692 

1. 771.653 

55.183 

406,430 

54.343.547 

7,467,878 

2,520,540 

24,308,219 

3.551.703 

5,101,101 

1,500,000 

439.083 

850,000 

4,620,201 

1,225.914 

2,755.685 

3.223 

7.504.703 

204,224 
19,491 

5,122,059 

1,084,662 

356,704 

81,000 

636,563 

853.050,101 

8,559.312 

7  10,000 

38,000,000 

300,000 

52,985.423 

3.512,607 

14,827,101 

42,612 


1,532.-12 

363.610 
1.367,600 

463.200 
550,340 

4. 831. 88 
1,366,832 


302,1  10,000 

20,000,000 

2,600,000 

6,500,000 

1,200,000 

9,788,400 
10,957.400 


15-75 
1-93 
1-52 
32.  10 
.  II 
145.39 
196.3 
19.73 
27-5 
10.4 

53.96 
245 

39-2 
344   83 
144-67 
136-9 
378.78 
7.402 
6-2 
4-90 
7-4 
12 .  14 
II  -57 
12-93 
2-59 
5-  15 
6.39 
17 
6-99 


32-26 
67  -91 

1-66 
10-35 
lS-65 
9-26 
6-62 

54-23 

74  41 

9.71 

51-6 

40-9 

356. 19 

251  .90 

17497 

3-21 


197- IS 
55 

1.9 
14 


30s. 467 

29.304 

841 

255.251 

466 

47 

15.804 
1.239 


1,690 

64 

150 

220 

331 


45,522 

19,240 

798 

15.44s 

5,008 

621 

370 

95 

232 

1.656 

1.524 

533 


2 . 2 


23.327 
296 


20,138 

2,883 


65,782 

604 
130 

1,721 

4.796 
421 
914 


4,160 
1,800 


10,586 


REFERENCE    TABLES 


and  Commerce  of  the  Principal  Countries  of  the  World. 

IQ14  and  JQI5,  and  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  IQ13.) 

Commerce 


Total 

Total 

Per  cent  of 

Per  cent 

Tonnage 

Year 

Exports 

Imports 

exports  to 
U.S. 

of  imports 
from  U.S. 

entered  and 
cleared 

3,389.607.197 

2,949,695.238 

39.18 

54  31 

181,345.276 

1913 

393.232.057 

692.032,392 

42 

49 

6S  30 

29.568.486 

1913 

14.658,216 

15.996.349 

9 

07 

34.84 

2.S61.975 

1913 

2,465.884.1492 

1,813.008.2342 

101.791.132 

1913 

26,112,978 

21,809.533 

94 

77 

34 
24 

95. 49 
49.69 

1,110,400 

1913 

14S.997.126 

95.145.352 

15.306,6448 

1913 

47,283.110 

37.951.580 

42 

06 

53.34 

6,686,236 

1913 

2,467.556 

10,000,000 

86 

32 

54-83 

3,801,7877 

1913 

164,823.059 

143.758,736 

79 

64 

52.38 

6,150,9668 

1913 

II. 315. 559 

8,100,125 

8 

83 

72.94 

2,276,7657 

1913 

10.177.754 

9,012,651 

Si 

48 

62 .  21 

783,895 

1913 

49,103.565 

36,900,062 

82 

55 

89.85 

655,2589 

1913 

48,084.714 

56.072.318 

27 

12 

25.66 

20,417,969 

137.557 
914.292 

36,931 
1,916,283 

1913 

73 

86 

53.25 

.  1,106,300 

1913 

9.415. 511 

7,954.687 

0 

84 

21 .66 

1,964,465 

1.186,237.736 

1.035.897.332 

18 

35 

14. 10 

174.344.494 

1913 

469,966,418 

409.554.669 

4 

73 

14.72 

56.604,833 

1913 
1913 

38,723,469 
315,166,140 

22,138.447 
326.426.760 

5 

83 

7.38 

31 

59 

15.26 

29,170,1797 

1913 

144,455.155 

120,109,243 

21 

05 

16.72 

55.122,552 

1913 

34.315.800 

28,535.800 

54 

96 

12 .  14 

1,323.3457 

1913 

15,216,062 

8.517.233 

24 

27 

29.98 

656,795 

1913 

16,800,628 

13,490.451 

1,341,502 

1913 

5,462,001 

7.671. 551 

001 

5.86 

528,544 

1913 

44,409,610 

29,591.451 

a 

19 

28.08 

2,494,901 

1913 

65,142,000 

50,666,000 

4 

56 

12  .04 

23.798.254 

1913 

29.483.789 

18,030,103 

28 

74 

32.96 

2.825,540 

1913 

7,096,664 

1,162,619 

.06 

478,049 

563,784.811 

548,121,127 

6 

65 

12.43 

20.594,580 

1913 

43.47r.940 

36,002.940 

98 

25 

80.91 

3,159,357 

1913 

170,018 

293.648 

78 

01 

33  69 

137.9828 

1913 

382,480,955 

388,644,363 

3 

34 

II  .91 

10,908,426 

1913 

111,715,469 

108,321,148 

3 

97 

9.46 

3.438.792 

1913 

14,050,313 

6,087,374 

0 

77 

4.54 

877.7576 

1913 

5.325.180 

5.197.935 

0 

19 

16.03 

775.755 

iyio,ii,i2 

6.570.936 

3,573,719 

none 

996,5116 

2,413,480,249 

2,475.720,191 

1 1 

45 

4.64 

239.829,503 

1913 

53.683.326 

56.327.533 

39 

13 

45.06 

3,700,023 

1913 

8.087.881 

6,298,594 

681,139 

1913 

273.578.400 

197,336,400 

2 

27 

1.59 

5,238,000' 

1912 

390.668 

425,689 

165,4967 

1913 

307.375.662 

354.503,777 

29 

89 

17.19 

49,917,713 

1913 

6,290,025 

8,759,188 

792.7247 

1913 

15.377.714 

35,646,963 

9 

27 

10.96 
'6:17 

4,001,2417 

1913 

296,051,473 

418,534,953 

93.334.830 

1913 

32,814,958 

31,480.456 

1908 

4,811,400 

7,681,600 





COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 
Table  4.     The  Area,  Population,  Railway  Mileage, 


Grand  Divisions 


Area 


Asia — Continued 
British  Indo-China 

Malay  Peninsula 

Straits  Settlements 

French  India  and  Indo-China.  .  .  . 

Siam 

India  Proper 

Feudatory  States 

Ceylon 

Afghanistan 

Persia 

Oman 

Aden,  Perim,  Sokotra 

Turkey  in  Asia  {12) 

Cyprus 

Africa 

Abyssinia 

Egypt  (is) 

Morocco 

Liberia 

Belgian  Congo 

British  Africa 

South  Africa 

West  Africa 

Other  British  Africa 

French  Africa 

Algeria 

Tunis 

Other  French  Africa 

German  Africa 

Italian  Africa 

Libya  (Tripolitania,  Cirenaica) 

Portuguese  Africa 

Spanish  Africa 

Europe 

United  Kingdom 

German  Empire 

France 

Netherlands 

Italy  

Belgium 

Spam 

Austria-Hungary  (loy 

Austria 

Hungary 

Russian  Empire  (11) 

Russia  in  Europe 

Finland 

Switzerland 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway 

Portugal 

Turkish  Empire  (12) 

Turkey  in  Europe 

Greece 

Serbia 

Roumania 

Bulgaria 


Population 


52 
I 

310 

195 

1,092 

709 

25 

250 

628 

82 

10 

699 

3 


106 
600 
176 
,000 
.994 
,118 
,481 
,000 

,000 
,000 
,387 
.342 
S84 


[  1,460,899 

350,000 

12,226 

219,000 

40,000 

909,654 

1,206,011 

444,842 

1,465,418 

343,500 

45.779 

3,801,572 

1,032,280 

185,230 

406,000 

792,140 

85.814 

3,894.654 
121,633 
208,780 

207,054 

12,582 

110,632 

11,373 

194.783 

261,259 

115.882 

125,609 

8,764.586 

2,092,715 

125,689 

15,976 

15.582 

172,963 

124,643 

35.490 

710,224 

10,882 

41.933 

33.891 

53.489 

43.305 


2,085,413 

743.010 

14.773.000 

8,149,487 

244,221,377 

70,864,995 

4,262,097 

6,000,000 

9,500,000 

500,000 

58,165 

19,382,900 

286,442 

135.347,595 

8,000,000 

11,287,359 

5,000,000 

2,100,000 
20,465,000 

8,580,100 
20,551,000 
11,980,444 

5.563.828 

1,878,620 

18,238,795 

12,428,429 

450,000 

529.176 

8,059.000 

235.844 

469,691,593 

46,407,037 

64.925.993 

39,601,509 

6,1 14,300 

35.597,781 

7,571.387 

20,355,986 

51.780,375 

28,995.844 

20,886,487 

174,099,600 

150,157,100 

3,196,700 

3,831,220 

2,775,076 

S.638.583 

2,391,782 

5.957. 985 

21,273,900 

1,891,000 

4,688,780 

4,547,992 

7,508,009 

4,752,907 


Population 

per  square 

mile 


40.02  I 
464 . 38  j 
47   63 
4179 
.223.47 
99-90 
167 . 22 
24 
15 
6.09 
5.6 
27.72 
79.92 

11.83 
22.86 
923  39 
22.83 
52.50 
22.49 

7. II 

46.  19 

8.17 

25.05 

41.03 

4.65 

12.04 

2  .42 

1.30 

10. 17 

2.74 

120.60 

381.53 
324-49 

189. S 
494 
321 . 76 
665 . 13 
102  .6 
198 .  19 
250. 21  ■ 
166.28 
19.82 
71.75 
24.61 
239 .81 
178 
32.6 
19.  2 
152.8 

30 
1S7 

iii»8i 
144 

140.36 
128.91 


Railways 


994 

721 

34.656 

60s 

6 


2,836 
61 

29,914 

187 

2,279 


788 

11.314 
1.463 
2,429 

2,793 
1,428 
3.383 
2,901 
74 

■■'875 


207.330 

23.718 

39.764 

25.472 

2,320 

11.16s 

2,898 

9.299 

29.060 

14.512 

13.333 

46,573 

35.987 

2,328 

3.392 

2,390 

8,928 

1,664 

1.849 

3,882 

1,046 

1.365 

974 

2.333 

1.3.'!; 


REFERENCE    TABLES 

and  Commerce  of  the  Principal  Countries  of  the  "World 

Commerce 


Year 

Total 
Exports 

Total 
Imports 

Per  cent  of 

exports  to 

U.S. 

Per  cent 
of  imports 
from  U.S. 

Tonnage 

entered  and 

cleared 

1913 
1913 

89,000,713 

220,523,142 

75.073,014 

29,970,954 

856,912,012 

52,710.384 

274. 514.534 

61. 19s. 510 

27.870,321 

795.773.698 

.22 
7.10 

1.46 
15.9 

3.13 

'8^18 
0.53 
0.  20 

1. 01 
0..18 
1.87 

0.63 
0.15 

'2:78 
0.56 

3.19 

7.18 

9.36 
6.84 
6.64 
4.24 
10.62 
3.67 
7.18 

0.89 

9.33 
1 .09 
4.24 
7-95 
16.51 
2.72 

13-75 

0.  20 
2  43 

4,340,62s 

27,124,789 

4.4S7.749 

1. 135.488 

17,386,408 

1913 
1913 

2 
2 

64 

15 

1913 

76,095,790 

64,683,616 

16,126,254 

1913 
1913 

42,411,592 

1,465,181 

20,164,767 

55,168,348 

2,252,859 

21,274,563 

0 

16 

2,679.8247 
93,i8l9 
7,932,504 

1913 
1913 

7 

3 

1913 

3,401,577 

843.886,233 

151.875.000 

14,980,911 

1,112,187 

11,493.973 

326,530,375 
74,736,691 
35,416,827 

99,241,200 
34.732,204 
54,649,823 
24,338,078 
2,206,857 
666,311 
11,805,796 

3,281,20s 

775,186,896 

1 17,223,200 

39,115,608 

1,411,237 

10,471,905 

217,320,853 
72,879,296 
46,238,565 

129,762,000 
28,043,109 
53.722,575 
30,040,170 
4,831.432 
4,963.712 
19,163.234 

721,515 
104,653,447 

3 

75 

1913 
1913 
1913 
1912 

1913 
1913 
1913 

1913 
1913 
1913 

2 
0 
6 
0 

6 
4 
2 

I 
4 

24 
36 
86 
IS 

66 
54 

27 

94 
93 

27.175.096 
3,432,1477 
i,o6-<,io8 
435.941^ 

10,631,118 
8,281,229 
6,540,938 

13,081,660 
9,320,942 

11,462.8838 
5,635,8357 

200,33S7 
1,623,4  1 17 

1912-13 

1912-13 

1913 

I 
0 

87 
06 

1912-13 

II 

73 

5,763.8017 

1913 
1913 
1913 
1913 
1913 
igi2 
1913 
19 1 3 

12,051,531.439 

3,085,226,784 

2,478,429,90017 

1,227,441,600 

1,233,200,000 

486,763,020 

762,639,500 

193,957,657 

559.526,940 

14,423,929,672 

3.736.050,831 

2,723,231,98817 

(,637,042,400 

1,567,200,000  . 

707,183,460 

956,894,000 

229,286,373 

647.364,380 

9 

18 
14 
10 
II 
14 
8 
14 

97 
42 
95 
54 
29 
26 
34 
09 

713.893,806* 

164,810,000 
65,148,111 
53,739,117 
36,229,000 

113.837,761 
32,672,989 
40,788,681 
60,578,486 
51,136,196 
9,442,290 
24,249,000 

1913 

380,017,980 
81s.348.000 

410,840,100 
678,100,500 

■  1913 

5 

63 

1913 

73.774,620 
282,151,985 
193.043.088 
218,739,351 
106,005,483 

37,534,353 
105,688,777 

90,292,603 
373,212,284 
228,922,621 
226,551,354 
149,157,072 

81,618,281 
192,416,401 

7,325,23s 

1913 

6 
10 
9 
6 
3 
6 

09 
25 
12 
63 
38 
12 

1913 
1913 
1913  ■ 
19 1 2 
1912 

6,252,867 
25,511,890 
11,538,458 
19,154,2397 
17,397.888 

1913 
1912 

23,118,330 

16,372,626 

134,470.446 

18,118,070 

34,730,906 

20,624,581 

110,758,433 

33.291.204 

3 

50 

4,104.3607 

191 1 
1913 

0 

0 

87 
31 

21.545.868 
9,009.856 

=  Separate  figures  not  available  for  Russia  in  Europe;  figures  are  for  Constantinople  only. 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 
Table  4.     The  Area,  Population,  Railway  Mileage, 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  LEADING  COMMERCIAL 


Grand  Divisions 


British  Empire  (i6) 

United  Kingdom 

Other  Europe 

India 

Other  Asia 

Australia  and  Pacific  Islands 

Africa 

America 

Russian  Empire  and  Finland 

Russia  in  Europe 

Russia  in  Asia 

Finland 

France 

Europe 

Algeria 

Other  Africa 

Asia 

America 

Oceania 

United  States  and  Possessions  (i) 

Continental  U.  S 

Alaska 

Porto  Rico,  Virgin  Islands  (West 
Indies) 

Hawaii,  Guam,  and  Tutuila 

Philippine  Islands 

Panama  Canal  (3) 

German  Empire 

Europe 

Africa 

Asia 

Oceania 


Area 


12,423,220 

121,633 

19 

1,802,112 

166,953 
3,192,663 
3,128,497 
4,011,243 

8,764,586 

2,092,715 

6,198,714 

125,689 

4.745.597 
207,054 
343.500 

3.847.351 
310,176 

35.222 

8,744 

3,743.444 

3,026,789 

590,884 

3.573 

6,736 

115,026 

436 

4,236,600 

208,7 
1,032,280 
200 
96,160 


Population 


439,821,419 

46,407.037 

237,759 

315,086,372 

8,684,877 

6,563.425 

52,398,903 

10,443,046 

174,099,600 

150,157.100 

20,745,800 

3,196,700 

80,587,752 

39,601,509 

5.563.828 

20,117,415 

14.773.000 

450,900 

81,100 

107,325.736 

97,163.330 

64,603 

1,195,778 

223,715 

8,559,312 

63,390 

78,159,885 

64,925,993 

12,428,429 

168,900 

636,563 


Population  1 

per  square| 

mi 

e 

35 

40 

381 

S3 

1,997 

97 

174 

84 

52 

01 

2 

03 

16 

74 

2 

60 

19 

86 

71 

75 

3 

34 

25 

43 

16 

98 

191 

26 

16 

19 

5 

23 

47 

62 

12 

77 

9 

27 

28 

64 

32 

10 

0 

10 

334 

67 

33 

21 

74 

41 

145 

38 

63 

20 

310 

97 

12 

04 

844 

.50 

6 

.61 

Railways 

131,051 

23.718 

8 

34,656 

1,567 

23,021 
17,48s 
30,596 

59.487 

46,573 

10,586 

2,328 

34,080 

25,472 

2,703 

4,811 

994 


10 

256,884 

255,251 

466 

220 
296 
604 

47 

42,937 

39,764 

2,901 

272 


NOTES 
Population  for  1913,  from  Census  Bulletin,  122. 
Commerce  of  United  States  and  outlying  territory  except  that  of  Philippines,  which 

is  classed  as  foreign  commerce. 
Commerce  for  Panama  Canal  (entered  only)  included  in  that  of  Panama. 
From    Bulletin   of  American   Republics,   estimated    for    1913. 
Commerce  from  Bulletin  of  American  Republics. 
Complete  data  not  found. 
Entered  only. 
Tutuila    only.     Other    French    Africa    and    Central    America,    incomplete.     Cuba, 

Havana  only. 
Cleared  only. 

Table  5.     Rail  and  Inland  Water  Transportation  in 


Rt  ilvays — mileage 

Railways  per  1,000  square  miles 

Railways  per  10,000  population 

Water  ways — mileage 

Water  ways  per  l.ouo  square  miles  .  .  .  . 
Water  ways  per  10,000  population  .... 
Tonnage — by  rail  in  millions  of  tons.  .  . 
Tonnage — by  water  in  millions  of  tons  . 

Tonnage  %  total  by  rail 

Xonnage  %  total  by  water 


United 
States 
(1912) 


258,033 

85.25 
27.04 
30,010 

9.91 

3.  14 

1,844.98 

244.42 

88.30 

1 1  .  70 


Great 
Britain 
(1913) 


23,718 
195-00 
515 
4.673 

38.42 

1  .U2 

37  I.  5 
43.2 
89.58 
10.42 


Germany 
(1912) 


i7,823 

181 

5 

8,564 

41 

1 

675 

113 


France 
(1911) 


31.213 

150.74 

7.88 

10,400 

50.23 

2.63 

206.53 

42  .02 

83.09 

16.91 


REFERENCE   TABLES 


XlX 


and  Commerce  of  the  Principal  Countries  of  the  World 

AND  COLONIAL  COUNTRIES 


Year 

Total 
Exports 

Total 
Imports 

Per  cent  of 

exports  to 

U.S. 

Per  cent 
of  imports 
from  U.S. 

Tonnage 

entered  and 

cleared 

5,938,210,922 

6,701,225,832 

9.49 

18.61 

392.707,988 

1913 

3,085,226,784 

3,736,050,831 

9.36 

18.42 

164,810,000 

5,309,126 

12,932,927 

22,875,027 

1913 

856,912,012 

795,773,698 

7.10 

2.  II 

17.386,408 

1913 

417,273.870 

422,762,896 

82,748,538 

1913 

508,246,737 

503,052,885 

3-03 

10.42 

15,277,003 

1913 

588,658,893 

453,661,913 

2.84 

4-73 

32,870,28s 

1913 

476,583,500 

776,990,683 

28.64 

56 -35 

56,740,727 

889,122,620 

768,393.103 

3-31 

3-91 

31,574-235 

1913 

73.774-620 

90,292,603 

.17 

4.00 

7,325,23s 

1.509.400,911 

1,926,147,019 

9.21 

7.96 

94,861,984 

1913 

1,227,441,600 

1,637,042,400 

6.64 

10.54 

53,739,117 

1913 

99,241,200 

129,762,000 

0.63 

1.94 

13,081,660 

1913 

89,382,026 

81,765,684 

20,783,82s 

1913 

75. 073. 014 

61,195,510 

4,457,749 

1913 

12,937,891 

11,183,484 

3  23 

16.76 

2,023,878 

1913 

5.325,180 

5-197,935 

19.00 

16.03 

775,755 

2,519,567,47s 

1,869,335,767 

110,584,152 

1913 

2,347,025,648 

1,718,002,051 

101,191,132 

1913 

26,112,978 

21,809,533 

94-34 

95-49 

1,110,400 

1913 

49,103.565 

36,900,062 

82.5s 

89-85 

685,258 

1913 

43,641,958 

36,296,588 

98.17 

84.70 

3,297,339 

1913 

53,683,326 

56,327.533 

39-13 
7. SO 

45.06 
12.0^ 

3,700,023 

.... 

2,528,701,434 

2,758,288,799 

73,079,079 

1913 

2,478,429,900 

2,723,231,988 

6.84 

14  ■  93 

65,148,1x1 

1912,1913 

24,338,078 

30,040,170 

2.78 

1.87 

5,635,835 

1913 

19,362,520 

1,442,922 

1,298,622 

1910,11,12 

6,570,936 

3.573,719 

996,511 

13. 
14. 
15. 


Commerce  figures  of  Austria-Hungary  from  report  of  common  customs  territory. 

Commerce  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  included.    Special  commerce  of  Hungary 

given  separately. 
Commerce  for  Russia  as  a  whole;  not  given  separately  for  different  divisions. 
Commerce  of  Turkish  Empire  as  a  whole;  separate  figures  not  given. 
Figures  for  commerce  of  Chinese  Republic  as  a  whole,  incomplete. 
Commerce  of  Russia  in  Asia  included  in  Russian  Empire. 
Area  given  that  of  Nile  Valley  only.     Entire  territory  about  350,000  ?auare  miles. 

Tonnage  includes  Suez  Canal. 
).     Compiled  from  statistics  for  British  Empire  in  Statesman's  Year  Book,  0:913. 
■.     Includes  Luxemberg. 

Some  of  the  Principal  Commercial  Countries 


Austria-Hungary 

Russia  in  Europe 

Belgium 

Canada 

(1912) 

(1912) 

(1911) 

(1913) 

48,251 

35,987 

5,335 

29,304 

199-80 

17.20 

469 . 09 

8-13 

9.76 

2.40 

7.19 

40.66 

7.784 

116,891 

1,238 

2,700 

32.23 

55 -8S 

108.8s 

.75 

1-57 

7-78 

1.67 

3. 75 

242.84 

227.75 

72 

\o6.99 

10.36 

33-60 

58.8 

52.05 

95-91 

87.14 

55-05 

67-27 

4.00 

12.86 

44-95 

32.73 

XX  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Table  6.     Commerce  of  the  United  States  with  Foreign  Countries  and 
with  Non-contiguous  Territory  by  Classes  of  Commodities 

(From  U.S.  Statistical  Abstract,  IQ13,  and  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce 
and  Finance,  June,  igi4.) 


A.  EXPORTS 

FROM  UNITED 

STATES. 

(Values 

n   Millions  of   Dollars.) 

Grand  Divisions 

Foodstuffs, 
crude,  and 
food  ani- 
mals 

Foodstuffs, 
wholly  or 

partly 
manuf'ct'd 

Raw  ma- 
terials for 
use  in 
mfg. 

Materials 
partly 

manufac- 
tured 

'd  (J 

^  rt  yj 
•^^   (U 

m  3  t, 
•5  C  3 

S.3 

"3 
0 

To  No.  America . . . 
To  So.  America .  .  . 

To  Oceania 

To  Asia 

33 

I 

3 
3 

138 

181 

35 
84 
98 
73 
18 
83 
91 

61 .  70 

13.38 

6.34 

II. 31 

3.60 

224.87 

321 .20 

97.76 

2.64 

3.58 

30.29 

2.83 

594-66 

731-76 

95-48 

28.  II 

9.96 

9.31 

2.29 

263.66 

408.81 

301 -94 
99-66 
58.04 
60.12 
17.07 
239.47 
776.30 

5-75 

.  10 

.05 

.02 
.10 

2.51 

8.53 

595 . 98 

145    73 

78.95 

114-78 

29.07 

1,464.00 

2,428.51 

To  Africa 

To  Europe 

Total  values .... 

B.  IMPORTS  INTO  UNITED  STATES.     (Values  in  Millions  of  Dollars.) 


From  No.  America 
From  So.  America. 

From  Oceania 

From  Asia 

From  Africa 

From  Europe 

Total  values .... 


49.28 

102.91 

113    33 

84 

1.58 

4 

90 

21.09 

9 

01 

.22 

01 

26.25 

76 

57 

211  .75 

194 

24 

123.80 

54-13 

71.91 

29 

44 

23.17 

4 

85 

147.85 

43 

52 

25.76 

17 

242.72 

217 

29 

635.21 

349 

40 

30 

64 

I 

18 

2 

10 

13 

3 

no 

04 

.S4 

55 

47 

10 

10 

317 

73 

12 

31 

408 

18 

14 

23 

361.94 
217.75 

37.54 
276.49 

26.42 

892.87 

1,813.01 


C.  EXPORTS  FROM  UNITED  STATES.     (By  per  cent  of  Total  Value.) 


To  No.  America. . 
To  So.  America.  . 

To  Oceania 

To  Asia 

To  Africa 

To  Europe 

Total  per  cents 


I 

37 

2 

54 

08 

55 

04 

20 

IS 

47 

13 

15 

5 

72 

9 

25 

7 

49 

13 

23 

4 

02 

II 

15 

I 

25 

II 

24 

49 

30 

13 

3 

93 

I 

16 

41 

38 

09 

10 

86 

16 

83 

12.43 

.237 

4.  II 

.004 

2.39 

.002 

2.48 

.001 

■  70 

.004 

9.86 

.103 

31.97 

0.351 

01 


3.2s 

4-73 

I.  18 

60.3c 

100.00 


D.  IMPORTS   INTO   UNITED   STATES.     (By  per  cent  of  Total  Value.) 


From  No.  America 
From  So.  America. 

From  Oceania 

From  Asia 

From  Africa 

From  Europe 

Total  per  cents. . 


6.25 

•  09 

1. 16 


1.45 
11.68 


.05 

■  27 
•  50 

.000; 
4.  22 
10.  72 


6.83 
3-97 
1.28 
8.15 
1.42 
13  .!9 
35-04 


69 

.065 

II 

.007 

16 

.002 

01 

.025 

01 

.006 

5.S 

.6-9 

51 

.784 

19.97 

12  .01 
2  .07 

15.24 
I  .46 

49.25 
100 .00 


E.  EXPORTS  FROM  UNITED  STATES  TO  NON-CONTIGUOUS  TERRITORY 
(Values  in  Millions  of  Dollars.) 


To  Alaska 

To  Hawaii.  . . . 

To  Philippines 

To  Porto  Rico 

Total  values 


1.50 
1.74 
.57 
6.08 
9.89 


4.  80 
4.71 
3.65 
7.82 
21 .04 


10 


2.40 
3.64 
1.82 
2.44 
30 


II  .07 

.i)S 

19.23 

19  .  20 

.28 
.006 

15    09 
64   59 

.07 
.436 

30.41 

25.36 

32.22 

108 . If 


F.  IMPORTS  INTO  UNITED  STATES  FROM  NON-CONTIGUOUS 
TERRITORY   (Values  in  Millions  of  Dollars.) 


From  Alaska 

From  Hawaii .  .  .  . 

From  Philippines. 

From  Porto  Rico. 

Total  values  .  .  . 


3.  16 

4  ■  ,i4 


17.45 
40.61 
S.64 
27.39 
91.09 


4-65 
.26 

12.  19 

3  35 
20.45 


2.99 
6.08 
9. S3 


23  01 
41 .66 
20.93 
40.02 
125.62 


THE   INDEX 

All  figures  refer  to  pages;  heavier  type  is  used  for  the  more 
important  references. 


Abaca,  go,  225,  227. 

Aberdeen,  400. 

Abrantes,  379. 

Abyssinia,  346,  353;  coffee,  89,  353; 
commerce,  353. 

Acadia,  245. 

Acapulco,  260. 

Acre,  342. 

Adana,  343- 

Adelaide,  295,  297,  298. 

Adelsbpfg  Pass,  385. 

Aden,  336;  British  naval  station,  337,  406. 

Aderar,  352. 

Adirondacks,  112,  117,  122. 

Adrianople,  368. 

Adriatic,  364.  366,  367,  382,  383. 

^gean  Sea,  339,  367. 

Afghanistan,  331,  332;  commerce,  333, 
334.  436. 

Africa,  8,  30,  34.  86,  250,  328,  344-359,  396, 
406;  climate,  346;  coast  line,  24,  346; 
coffee,  272,  354;  exports,  8,  353,  354; 
inhabitants,  344;  irrigation  in,  345,  348, 
350;  gold,  203,  356;  human  porterage 
in,  64;  map  (Fig.  230),  between  344, 
345;  horn  of,  353;  equatorial,  com- 
merce of,  354;  North,  86,  349-352; 
commerce,  351,  352;  exports,  351; 
imports,  331;  minerals,  351;  products, 
3.'ii;  South,  81,  405;  climate,  356; 
commerce,  358;  commerce  of  British 
(Fig.  237),  358;  exports,  358;  other 
resources,  83,  356;  products  of  the 
soil,  355,  356;  trade  routes  and  trade 
centers,  357;    "white  man's,"  354,   355. 

African  Islands,  in  Atlantic,  358,  359; 
Indian  Ocean,  359. 

Agassiz,  Lake,  glacial,  18,  150. 

Agate,  188. 

Agaves,  237;  cutting  agave  leaves  for 
sisal   fiber  in   Yucatan   (Fig.    177),   237. 

Agram,  385. 

Agricultural  implement  industry,  122,  158. 

Agriculture,  first  developed,  3,  3;  primi- 
tive woman  first  in,  3;  primitive  man 
despised,  3;  made  possible  growth  of 
commercial  and  manufacturing  cities, 
3;  civilization  based  on,  13;  how  low- 
lands affect,  17,  18;  upland  valleys 
affect,  19,  20;  mountains  affect,  20; 
results  of  law  of  decreasing  returns  in, 
37;  imposes  restrictions  on  man,  83, 
84;  tended  to  preserve  race  integrity  of 
English  in  America,  103;  Indian  squaw's 
method,  105;  Northern  and  Southern 
types  of,  105,  106;  in  North  Atlantic, 
South,  North  Central,  and  West 
[U.  S.)  (Fig.  64),  III;  westward 
migration  of  U.  S.  centers  (Fig.  98), 
137;  industry  of  U.  S.  (Fig.  134),  200; 
exports  [U.  S.],  why  they  must  eventually 


decline,  201,  202 ;  law  of  decreasing  returns 
in,  202;  possibilities  of  Alaska  213,  214;- 
in  Philippines,  225;  scientific  methods 
of  Germany,  420;  for  agriculture  in 
other  countries,  see  under  the  country; 
see  also  Soil. 

Aguascalientes,  259. 

Air  nitrates,  410. 

Airplane  (Fig.  33),  71- 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  421,  423. 

Akron,  106,  160. 

Alaska,  23,  29,  193;  agricultural  possi- 
bilities, 213,  214;  character  of,  210; 
commerce,  214,  215;  exports,  214; 
(Fig.  147),  214;  fisheries  and  forests, 
210-212;  fisheries  and  minerals  (Fig. 
144),  211;  fur  farms,  210;  homestead 
unit,  214;  imports,  214;  map  (Fig. 
129),  facing  197;  mineral  resources, 
212,  213;  mountains,  210;  transporta- 
tion, 215,  216. 

Alaskan  islands,  importance  to  U.  S.,  216. 

Albanians,  363. 

Albany  [Australia],  298;  [N.Y.],i07,i22,i29. 

Albula  Tunnel,  389. 

Alcohol,  90,  160,  392. 

Aleppo,  6,  342. 

Alexandretta,  342,  343. 

Alexandria,  8,  11. 

Alfalfa,  282. 

Algeria,  171,  349,  350,  35i.  3971  products, 
351. 

Allegheny,  122;  River,  107;  Plateau,  18. 
1 12,  1 13,  120. 

Allentown,  122. 

Allied  and  Assoc:  •  jd  Powers,  429. 

Alligator,  81. 

Allspice  (Pimento),  in  Jamaica,  264. 

Almaden,  378. 

Almeria,  378,  379. 

Almonds,  36,  83;  Iberian  Peninsula,  378; 
Italy,  372;  Morocco,  331;  U.  S.,  183; 
harvest  (Fig.  117),  184. 

Aloe  fiber,  339. 

Alpaca,  65,  83,  270. 

Alps,  360,  361,  367,  379,  381,  386,  389, 
393.  413;  mineral  district,  383;  rail- 
ways, 374;  tunnels,  13,  374.  383.  389; 
water   power,  371. 

Alsace-Lorraine,  393,  397. 

Altoona,  railway  cars,  122. 

Aluminum,  Switzerland,   388;  U.   S.,   122. 

Amapala,  261. 

Amazon  River,  18,  34,  268,  272,  277, 
286. 

Amber,  8,   11,   421. 

Ambergris,  263. 

American  expansion,  causes  of,  229;  in  the 
Caribbean,  229-242;  in  the  Pacific, 
210-228. 

American  Mediterranean,  254. 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


American  people,  103,  104. 

Ammunition,  119. 

Amoy,  318. 

Amsterdam  [Neth.l,  74,  414,  415,  416; 
[N.  Y.l,  118. 

Amur  River,  435,  436. 

Anatolia  (Asia  Minor),  8,  338,  339,  340, 
341;  ports,  343. 

Anchovies,  Mediterranean,  373,  378. 

Anderson  [Ind.j,  165. 

Andes  Mountains,  65,  83,  268,  271,  278, 
280,  281,  28s,  286;  climate,  fertility, 
268,  269;  minerals,  283;  population, 
270;  products,  273;  railways,  277; 
water  power,  276. 

Andorra,  362,  380,  397- 

Anegada  Passage,  266. 

Angola,  356. 

Angora  goats,  Turkey-in-Asia,  339;  in  the 
dry  Southwest  [U.  S.]  (Fig.  40),  82. 

Animal  fibers,  81,  83. 

Animals,  domestic,  in  China,  314;  wild, 
uses  of,  78. 

Annam,  326. 

Annatto,  264. 

Ansonia  [Conn.],  irg. 

Antilles,  greater,  254;  lesser,  262,  263,  264. 

Antimony,  in  China,  315;  Prance,  393; 
Greece,  365;  Japan,  304;  Turkey,  341. 

Antioch,  8,  10. 

Antofagasta,  287;  line,  285. 

Antwerp,  commercial  museum  and  school 
of  commerce  at,  416;  important  as  sea- 
port, 27,  404,  453;  as  market,  12,  415,417. 

Anzacs,  294. 

Anzin,  394;  coal  field,  392. 

Aparri,  228. 

Apennines,  371,  374,  376;  lignite  send 
petroleum  in,  373. 

Apia,  293- 

Appalachian  Mountains,  98,  99,  100,  130, 
140,  145;  coal  fields  of,  160;  as  a  barrier 
to  development  of  the  country,  10 1, 
106,  107,  108. 

Apples,  86;  in  Canada,  245,  246;  France, 
392;  Tasmania,  296;  U.S.,  140,  183,  200. 

Apulia,  371. 

Aqueducts,  built  by  Romans,  70. 

Arabia,  35,  328,  336,  352;  commerce,  337; 
exports,  8,  336,  337;  products,  336,  337. 

Arabs,  their  importance  in  commerce,  3, 
337;  Arab  plowing  in  North  Africa 
(Fig.  235),  350. 

Archangel,  437. 

Ardennes  Plateau,  413,  414,  429. 

Areas  of  principal  countries,  xiv. 

Argentina,  83,  269;  climate,  280;  com- 
merce (Fig.  192),  288;  forests,  281; 
harbor,  287;  minerals,  283;  population, 
270;  products,  agricultural,  282,  285, 
288;  railways,  285,  286;  stock  raising, 
83,  281,  288;  the  U.  S.  of  S.  Am.,  286. 

Arica,  285;  nut,  224. 

Arlberg  Tunnel,  385,  389,  395- 

Armenia,  335,  435. 

Artesian  well,  at  Woonsocket,  S.  Dakota. 
(Fig.  104),  171;  artesian  wells  in  Sahara, 
352. 

Asbestos,  Quebec,  248;  Siberia,  433. 

Ash,  151. 

Ashtabula,  164. 

Asia,  35,  36,  250,  396,  430;  coffee,  272; 
fur,    iy8;    gold,    203;    map    (Fig.    201), 


between  300,  301;  silk,  83;  opium,  89; 
Southern,   324-334;   Western,   33S-343; 

why  western  Asia  is  of  special  interest, 
335;  trade  routes,  342-343. 

Asia  Minor,  see  Anatolia. 

Asiatic  empires,  430. 

Asphaltum,  in  California,  187;  Cuba,  237; 
France,  393;  Switzerland,  387;  Trinidad, 
264;  Turkey,  341;  Utah,  187,  Venezuela, 
275;  U.  S.,  southern,  143. 

Assafoetida,  33^. 

Assam,  331. 

Assuan,  349;  down-stream  fall  of  Assuan 
dam  (Fig.  234),  348. 

Astoria,  177. 

Astrakhan,  437. 

Asuncion,  287. 

Atacama  Desert,  283. 

Athabaska  River,  245,  248. 

Athens,  8,  28,  193,  364,  365. 

Atlanta,  27,  145,  146,  147. 

Atlantic,  highway  of  commerce,    13,    100. 

Attar  of  roses,  367,  368. 

Auburn,  115,  122. 

Augsburg,  423,  426. 

Augusta,  145. 

Aukland,  292,  293,  298. 

Aurora,  164. 

Aussig,  384. 

Australasia,  British,  293,  294;  colonies  and 
commerce,  298,  299;  commercial  cen- 
ters, 297,  298;  crops,  295,  296;  exports, 
298,  299;  forests  and  fisheries,  294; 
manufactures,  296,  297;  minerals,  296; 
stock  industry,  294,  295;  surface  and 
climate,  294;  transportation,  297. 

Australia,  30,  31,  35,  81,  83,  194,  221,  250, 
292,  293,  405;  crops  and  commerce, 
295,  296,  299  (Fig.  198),  299;  minerals, 
203,  299;  traction  engine  and  wagon  in 
(Fig.  28),  66;  transportation,  65,  66,  297. 

Austria,  see  Austria-Hungary. 

Austria-Hungary,  381-385,  427;  commerce, 
384,  385;  exports,  384,  409,  441.  442 
(Fig.  249),  384;  fisheries,  382,  383;  gov- 
ernment, 381;  imports,  384;  manufac- 
tures, 383;  map  (Fig.  248),  382;  min- 
erals, 203,  378,  383;  population,  20i, 
381,  450;  possessions,  385;  products, 
381,  382;  transportation,  and  trade 
routes,  384,  385,  452,  xix;  water 
power,  383;  Austria  and  Hungary, 
conflict  between,  42,  381,  384. 

Automobile  industry,  164, 

Azores,  378. 

Babylon,  6,  38,  339,  34°,  342. 

Bacon,  Ireland,  399;  Denmark,  411. 

Bagdad,  6,  11,  334,  343. 

Baguio,  223. 

Bahamas,  262,  263. 

Bahia,  273,  274,  279. 

Bahia  Blanca,  287. 

Baku,  433,  435.  439- 

Balata,  271,  273. 

Balboa,  241;  steel  pier  at  (Fig.  193),  289. 

Balkan  Mountains,  368,  369,  370. 

Balkan    Peninsula    and    Roumania,    363- 

370,    427;    map    (Fig.    242),    362;     why 

undeveloped,  363,  364. 
Balkh,  II. 

Balsam  copaiba,  271. 
"Balsam  of  Peru,"  256. 


THE  INDEX 


xxiil 


Baltic  Sea,  ii,  360,  384,  410,  411,  421,  426, 
427.  434.  437,  439- 

Baltimore,  27,  112,  114,  119,  122,  123, 
125,  126,  128,  155- 

Baluchistan,  327,  332. 

Bamboo,  China,  312,  316;  India,  329; 
Japan    (Pig.  203),  302;   Philippines,  224. 

Bananas,  85;  Australia,  296;  Ceylon,  329; 
Cuba,  236;  Fiji,  293;  Haiti,  265;  Hawaii, 
218;  Jamaica,  264;  Middle  America,  256; 
Panama,  239;  Philippines,  225;  Porto 
Rico,  232;  S.  America,  275,  278;  Sud4n, 
352. 

Banat,  369. 

Banff,  248. 

Bangkok,  327. 

Bangor,  112. 

Banking  System,  47. 

Baracoa,  237. 

Barada,  gorge,  342;   River,  341. 

Barbados,  230,  264,  266,  406. 

Barbuda,  264. 

Barcelona,  278,  377,  378,  379,  395- 

Bariloche,  285. 

Barley,  87,  88;  Africa,  351;  Alaska,  214; 
Austria-Hungary,  88,  382;  Canada,  88; 
Chile,  282;  Egypt,  346;  Germany,  88, 
421;  Great  Britain,  88,  399;  Greece, 
365;  Iberian  Peninsula,  377;  Iranian 
Peninsula,  333;  Ireland,  402;  Italy,  371; 
Japan,  88,  303;  New  Zealand,  296;  Nor- 
way, 409;  Russia,  88;  Scotland,  402;  S. 
America,  273;  Spain,  88,  377;  Syria,  340; 
Tasmania,  296;  U.  S.,  88,  154,  181; 
world  crop  (Fig.  44),  88. 

Barmen-Elberfeld,  423. 

Barquisimeto,  278. 

Barranquilla,  278. 

Barrios,  260. 

Barrow-in-Furness,  401,  402. 

Barter,  origin  of,  i. 

Basel,  388,  389,  42s. 

Basswood,  151. 

Batavia,  325. 

Bath,  119. 

Batum,  435. 

Bauxite,  393. 

Bavarian  Plateau,  421. 

Bay  City,  157- 

Bay  trees,  266. 

Bayonne,  120,  126. 

Beans,  114;  Africa,  351;  China,  313-31.=;. 
321;  Chosen,  308;  Egypt,  346;  Italy. 
371;  Manchuria,  314;  Middle  America, 
257;  Porto  Rico,  231;  S.  America,  273; 
United  States,  155;  castor.  Cape  Verde 
Islands,  358. 

Beaver,  in  Canada,  245. 

Beef  Extract,  S.  ."America,  284. 

Bee-keeping  industry,  80,  420;  Austria- 
Hungary,  381;  Switzerland,  387;  U.  S., 
174- 

Beer,  90;  Milwaukee,  160;  St.  Lonis,  160; 
Munich,  424;  Czecho-Slovakia,  383. 

Beeswax,  Africa,  353;  Cuba,  236;  Haiti, 
265;    !\Iadagascar,  359. 

Beet  sugar,  see  Sugar,  beet. 

Beira,  357. 

Beirut,  6,  340-342. 

Belfast,  402,  403,  405. 

Belfort  Gap,  389.  395. 

Belgian  coal  fields,  414. 

Belgian  Congo,  272,  417. 


Belginm,  413;  commerce  (Fig.  265),  416; 
exports,  413,'  416;  imports,  416;  indus- 
trial education,  416;  manufactures,  414; 
map  (Fig.  263),  412;  minerals,  203, 
414;  natural  resources,  413;  occupa- 
tions of  people,  451;  population,  450, 
451;  railway  mileage  (Fig.  289),  452; 
trade  routes  and  centers,  414,  415; 
transportation,  rail  and  inland  water,  xix. 

Belgrade,  369,  383. 

Bellingham,  195. 

Bender  Abbas,  334. 

Bengal,  324,  331. 

Benguet  Highlands,  226. 

Beni  River,  277. 

Benue  River,  354. 

Benzine,  96. 

Benzoin,  325. 

Berber,  346,  349. 

Berbera,  353. 

Berea  grit,  165. 

Bergen,  408,  410. 

Bering  River,  213;  Sea,  198,  215;  Strait, 
301. 

Berkshire  Hills,  123. 

Berlin,  375,  379,  389,  39S,  396.  412,  415, 
426,  427. 

Bermudas,  25,  262,  263. 

Beryl,  188. 

Besangon,  394. 

Betel  leaf,  224. 

Bhutan,  327. 

Bielefeld,  423. 

Biella,  373. 

Big  Horn  River,  177. 

Bilbao,  379. 

Binghamton,  115. 

Birch,  in  U.  S.,  151;    Canada,  245. 

Birmingham  [Ala.],  21,  145,  148;  [Eng.], 
403,  414. 

"Black  belt,"  130. 

Black  Forest,  426;   industries  of,  422,  424. 

Black  Hills,  100,  161. 

Black  Sea,  11,  335,  343.  360,  369.  370, 
384,  434.  435.  437,  438;    ports,  370. 

Black-waxy  region,  140,  144. 

Blankets,  Africa,  351".    Mexico,  259. 

Bleiberg,  383- 

Bloomington,  159. 

Blue  grass  district,  131.  i34.  I3S. 

Blue  Ridge,  20,  99.  142.  146- 

Bogota,  269,  273.  275.  277,  278. 

Bohemia  (Czecho-Slovakia),  products,  381, 
382;    minerals,    383. 

Bois  Brule,  106. 

Bolivia,  273,  276.  277.  278,  285-287; 
minerals,  275,  283. 

Bologna,  372,  374- 

Boma,  354. 

Bombay,  331. 

Bona,  351- 

Borate  of  lime,  284. 

Borax,  California,  188;   Italy,  373- 

Bordeaux,  392,  393,  395.  396. 

Borneo,  324,  325,  406;  "edible  birds'  nests," 
325. 

Bosnia   (Serb-Crote-Slovene  State),  385. 

Bosporus,  343.  368,  438. 

Boston,  25,  27.  112,  114,  117,  118,  124, 
245;   hart)or,  map  (Fig.  74),  124. 

Boulogne,  396. 

Bounties,  government,  44. 

Braddocks  Trail,  107- 


XXIV 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Bradford  [Eng.],  402;  [Pa.],  120. 

Brahmaputra  River,  331. 

Braila,  370. 

Brandy,  qo,  367;  Cognac,  392. 

Brass,  93,  1 19,  122. 

Brazil,  34,  269,  270,  277,  279,  280,  282, 
28s;  cocoa,  272,  273,  288;  coffee,  201, 
272,  273,  274,  288;  coffee  trust,  274; 
commerce,  290  (Fig.  192);  manu- 
factures, 276;  minerals  and  precious 
stones,  27s,  283,  330;  ports,  286;  rub- 
ber, 272,  288;   tapioca,  86. 

Brazil  nuts,  271. 

Brazil  wood,  271. 

Bread  fruit,  85. 

Bremen,  418,  427. 

Bremerhaven,  tobacco  market,  427. 

Brenner  Pass,  375,  446. 

Breslau,  420. 

Brest,  28. 

Brick,  123,  165;   invention  of,  92. 

Bridgeport,  119. 

Brindisi,  365,  375- 

Bringing  goods  to  market  on  sailing 
wheelbarrows  (Fig.  214),  317. 

Brisbane,  297,  298. 

Bristles,  200. 

Bristol,  405. 

British  Columbia,  248. 

British  Isles,  see  Great  Britain. 

Brittany,  363,  393,  396. 

Brockton,  117,  160. 

Broken  Hill,  356. 

Bronze  goods,  394. 

Brookline,  124. 

Brooklyn,  1 14. 

Bruges,  74,  413.  415;  ancient  trade  center, 
12,  415. 

Brusa,  340,  341. 

Brussels,  414,  416. 

Buckwheat,  88;    France,  392;    U.  S.,   T13. 

Budapest,  384,  385. 

Budweis,  383. 

Buenaventura,  279. 

Buenos  Aires,  277,  280,  282,  285,  286. 

Buffalo,  108,  114,  122,  127,  12S,  i^,  lOy, 
i6q,  251. 

Bukarest,  370. 

Bukhara,  436,  439;    rugs,  433. 

Bukowina,  369. 

Bulgaria,  367,  368,  369,  370. 

Buiuwayo,  357. 

Burgas,  370. 

Burlington  [Iowa],  157;    [Vl.),  112. 

Burma,  326,  332;  rice  teak,  329;  rubies, 
jade,  330. 

Bushire,  334. 

Busra,  343. 

Butte,  91,  185,  188,  193. 

Butter,  55,  80,  114;  Australia,  80; 
C'anaries,  358;  Denmark,  80,  411;  l-'in- 
land.  80;  France,  80;  Ireland,  309; 
-Vetherlands,  80;  \e\v  Zealand,  80; 
Russia,  80,  431,  438;    Sweden,   80,  409. 

Butterine,  55. 

Buttons,  158. 

Cabbage,  [  14. 

Cable  centers,  222,  266. 

Cable  routes,  map  (Fig.  52),  88. 

Cabuyaro,  277. 

Cadiz  (Cades),  7,  379. 

Cairo,  349. 


Calais,  394,  396. 

Calcutta,  241,  330,  331. 

Callao,  279. 

Cambodia,  326. 

Cambridge,  124. 

Camden,  1 18. 

Camels,  in  Asia,  315;  Iranian  Plateau, 
332;  Russia,  432;  Sahara,  352;  Turkey- 
in-Asia,  339;   caravans,  65. 

Camphor,  in  Ceylon,  330;  Florida,  142; 
Taiwan,  302. 

Campos,  34,  268,  270. 

Camwood,  354. 

Canada,  243-253,405;  cheese,  246;  climate 
and  surface,  37,  243,  244;  commerce, 
252,  253  (Fig.  174),  252;  commercial 
centers,  250-252;  exports,  199,  252,  409; 
farming  in,  245-247;  fisheries,  244,  245; 
forest  products,  199,  202,  245;  fur,  78, 
198,  245;  imports,  252;  land  under 
grass  and  crops  (Fig.  173),  247;  making 
of,  243;  map  (Fig.  180),  facing  268; 
manufactures,  44,  248,  249;  minerals, 
203,  247,  248,  (Fig.  173),  247;  parlia- 
ment, 243;  population  (Fig.  173),  247; 
postal  rates,  61;  transportation,  240, 
249,  250,  xi,\;  U.  S.,  relations  to,  252, 
253;    as  world  granary,  282. 

Canals,  73;  controlled  by  railroads,  128; 
in  France,  394,  395;  Great  Britain,  403; 
Hungary,  384;  Xetherlands,  415;  U.S., 
127-128;  Mississippi  system,  166;  ship 
canals,   73,   74,    124,   427. 

Canal  Zone,  see  Panama  Canal. 

Canary  Islands,  ^59,  378;    exports,  358. 

Candles,  158;    in  France,  394. 

Cane  Sugar,  see  Sugar,  cane. 

Canning  industry,   United   States,   190. 

Canton  [China],  315,  318;  [Ohio],  164; 
River,  121. 

Cape  Cod  Canal,  124. 

Cape-to-Cairo  Railway,  354,  357. 

Cape  Town,  357. 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  358,  359. 

Cap  Hartien,  265. 

Caracas,  260,  273. 

Caravan,  near  walls  of  Peking  (Pig.  2),  4. 

Cardenas,  237. 

Cardiff,  404. 

Caribbean  Sea,  234;   ports  of,  278. 

Carobs,  in  Cyprus,  340;  Greece,  365; 
Iberian  Peninsula,  377. 

Caroline  Islands,  222,  291-293. 

Carp,  German,  421. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  360,  369,  383. 

Carpets,  in  Africa,  351;  Brussels,  414; 
France,  394;  Great  Britain  (Kidder- 
minster, Wilton),  402;  Russia,  434; 
Turkey,  368;    U.  S.,   118. 

Carrara  marble,  373. 

Cars,  70,  122,  389. 

Cart,  influence  of  its  invention,  66. 

Cartagena,  [S.  Am.],  278;    [Spain],  379. 

Carthage,  7,  8,  331. 

Carving,  in  jade,  ivory,  wood,  315. 

Cascade  Mountains,  21,  loi,  102. 

Cascades,  the,  190. 

Cascalote  pods,  259. 

Cashmere  shawls,  in  C'cylon  and  India,  331. 

Cash  register,  164. 

Caspian  Sea,  95.  433-438. 

Cassava,  272,  273. 

Cassia,  in  China.  313. 


THE  INDEX 


Castor  beans,  India,  .529;  plant,  China,  3 1 5. 

Castries  Harbor,  264. 

Cattle  79,81,  in  Alaska,  21, j;  Argentina, 
83;  Australasia  295;  Austria-Hungary, 
81,381;  Canada,  247;  Central  America. 
256;  Ceylon,  81;  Channel  Islands,  399; 
Cuba,  23s;  France,  S9i;  Germany,  81, 
420;  Great  Britain,  399;  Hawaii,  217; 
Iberian  Peninsula,  377;  India,  81; 
Italy,  371;  Madagascar,  359;  Monte- 
negro, 368;  Xetherlands.  413;  New 
Caledonia,  293;  New  Zealand,  295; 
Oklahoma,  134;  Porto  Rico,  231;  Rou- 
mania,  369;  Russian  Empire,  81;  Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula,  409;  Serbia,  367; 
Africa,  336;  S.  America,  81,  281;  Suddn, 
352;  Texas,  113,  134;  U.  S.,  81,  156, 
172,  189;    (Fig.  39),  81. 

Caucasus  Mountains,  360. 

Caucho,  272. 

Caviare,  433. 

Cawnpur,  331. 

Cayey,  231. 

Ceara,  279;  rubber,  272. 

Cebu,  228. 

Cedar,  in  Cuba,  235;  Japan,  302;  Middle 
America,  256;  Porto  Rico,  231;  U.  S., 
175;    Cedars  of  Lebanon,  7. 

Cedar  Rapids,  159. 

Celery,  155. 

Celluloid,  302. 

Cement,  Portland,  123;    (Fig.  73),  123. 

Central  America,  35,  148,  149,  240,  254- 
262;  climate  and  surface,  254;  com- 
merce, 261,  262,  272;  inhabitants,  255; 
map  (Fig.  194),  facing  290,  manufac- 
tures, 259;  minerals,  203,  258;  products 
of  the  soil,  256-258,272;  resources,  other 
natural.  258;  transportation,  259-261. 

Central  Plain,  98,  100. 

Cereals,  87,  88. 

Cerro  de  Pasco,  275. 

Ceuta,  350,  380. 

Ceylon,  327-331,  406;  animal  products, 
328,  329;  climate  and  surface,  328;  ex- 
ports, 312,  329  minerals,  330,  products 
of  the  soil,  329,  330.  Value  of  graphite 
mined  (Fig.  224"),  330. 

Chambly  Canal,  249. 

Champagne,  to,  394. 

Champlain,  Lake.  99,   106,  112,   127,  249. 

Channel  Islands,  399,  405. 

Charcoal,  120. 

Charleroi,  414,  415. 

Charleston,  143,  146. 

Charlotte,  145. 

Chattanooga,  144,  146,  147. 

Cheese,  80;  Canada,  80;  France,  80;  Italy, 
80;  Xetherlands,  80;  Xew  York,  114; 
Ontario,  246-,  Switzerland,  80;  387; 
U.  S.,  80. 

Chelsea,  1 18. 

Chemical  industry.  Great  Britain,  403; 
Germany,  424,  449;    U.  S.,  206,  424. 

Chemnitz,  424. 

Chemulpe,  309. 

Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Canal,  146. 

Chesapeake  Bay,  25,  109,  112,  114,  128,  146. 

Chester,  122. 

Chestnuts,  85;  France.  391;  Iberian  Pen- 
insula, 377;    Italy,  371;    U.  S.,  133. 

Chicago,  27,  106,  108,  129,  158,  159.  160, 
164,   167,  168,  169,  250,  252;    Drainage 


Canal,  167;    River,  106,  166. 
Chick-peas,    Africa,    86,    351;     Spain,    86, 

377;    Italy,  372,    Mexico,  257. 
Chicle, Central  America,  2S6;Germany,42i. 
Ch'cory,  413,  421. 
Chifu,  320,  322. 
Chihli,  Gulf  of,  319,  322. 
Chihuahua,  258. 
Chile,  241,  269;   climate,  physical  features, 

280.  287;    commerce.  287-289-    exports, 

281,  283,  284;  forests,  281  manufac- 
tures, 284;  minerals  283,  296;  nitrate 
industry,  54,  92,  283,  284;  products,  281, 
282;    railroads,  285 

China,  "Dresden."  424. 

China,  Republic  of,  10,  11,  47,  60,  83,  89, 
132,  142,  241,  250,  307,  310-323,  361, 
362,  436,  437;  agriculture,  56,  312-315; 
animals,  domestic,  314;  centers,  com- 
mercial, 318-320;  commerce,  320,  321, 
(Fig.  216),  321;  expbrts,  320,  321,  i22; 
fisheries  and  forests,  312;  foreign  pos- 
sessions, 321-323;  human  porterage  in. 
64;  imports,  321;  loess,  beds  of,  17; 
manufactures,  315-316;  map  (Fig.  209), 
311;  merchant  guilds,  320;  mineral 
resources,  315;  national  characteris- 
tics, 5,  40,  41,  310;  physical  features. 
35,  310-312;   transportation,  316-318. 

"China  wax,"  312. 

Chinchilla,  281. 

Chinkiang,  319. 

Chinnampo,  309. 

Chinook    winds,  30 

Chocolate,  89;  Netherlands,  414;  Switzer- 
land, 387.  389- 

Chosen  (Korea),  307,  308,  309,  322,  map 
(Fig.  199),  300;  products,  308;  trade 
routes,  309. 

Christiania,  409,  410;   Bay,  410. 

Chrome,  Greece,  365;   New  (Caledonia,  293. 

Chromium,  Turkey,  341. 

Chunking,  319. 

Cider,  90. 

Cienfuegos,  238. 

Cigarettes,  in  Egypt,  348. 

Cigars,  Philippines,  226,  228;  Porto  Rico, 
232. 

Cinchona,  India,  324;  Java,  324;  S.  Amer- 
ica, 271,  324;  world's  production  of 
cinchona  bark   (Fig.   218),  324. 

Cincinnati,  27,  144,  146,  148,  151,  158, 
159,  160,  164,  165,  169. 

Cinnamon,  88;  Ceylon  and  India,  330; 
Philippines,  226. 

Cirenaica,  349. 

Cities,  beginning  of,  5;  see  also  names  of 
cities. 

Citrons,  Corsica,  392;    Italy,  372. 

Ciudad  Bolivar,  278. 

Civet,  353. 

Civilization,  defined,  38,  49;  based  on  the 
soil,  15;  first  step  upward,  39;  Fluvial 
or  "valley"  stage,  5;  Mediterranean 
stage,  5;    Oceanic  stage,  5. 

Clams,  III,  198. 

Clam-shell  scoop,  taking  a  12-ton  bite 
(Fig.  loi),  163. 

Clay,  123;   products  in  Ohio,  165. 

Clearing  houses,  47. 

Cleveland,  160,  164,  166,  167. 

Climate,  29;  how  commerce  depends  on, 
29-38;     how   forests  affect,   23;     moun- 


XXVI 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


tains  affect,  21;  relation  of,  to  man, 
38;  climatic  belts,  32,  33;  weather  map 
(Fig.  210),  36;  vertical  zones  of,  in 
tropical  America  (Fig.  176),  256;  .for 
cMmate  of  different  countries,  see  under 
the  country. 

Clinton,  157. 

Clothing,  ready-made,  1 18,  160. 

Clover,  93;  Egypt,  346. 

Cloves,  88. 

Clyde  River,  403,  404. 

Coal,  95,  96,  97,  128,  448;  annual  con- 
sumption, per  capita  (Fig.  283),  449; 
in  Alabama,  143,  148;  Alaska,  212;  Alle- 
gheny-Cumberland Plateau,  143,  145, 
147;  Anatolia,  341;  Appalachians,  160; 
Australia,  296;  Austria-Hungary,  203, 
378,  449;  Belgium,  414,  449;  Brazil, 
275;  Bulgaria,  367;  (ianada,  97,  248,  249; 
China,  97,  315,  316;  Chosen,  308;  Colo- 
rado, 187;  Czecho-Slovakia,  383;  Eng- 
land, 208,  447;  France,  203,  378,  393, 
394,  422,  449;  Germany,  203,  378,  421- 
424,  449;  Great  Britain,  203,  304,  400-4, 
402,  447,  449;  Iberian  Peninsula,  378; 
India,  330;  Indo-China,  326;  Italy,  373; 
Japan,  304,  307,  449;  Luxemburg,  428; 
Malaysia,  325;  Mexico,  258,  259;  New 
Mexico,  187;  New  Zealand,  296;  Ozark 
region,  143;  Panama,  239;,  Pennsylva- 
nia, 258;  Philippines,  226;  Poland,  383, 
433;  Rocky  Mountain  region,  186,  187; 
Russia,  401,  433,  449;  Scotland,  401; 
Serbia,  367;  Siberia,  433;  S.  Africa.  356; 
S.  America,  283;  Switzerland,  387; 
Transcaucasia,  433;  U.  S.,  97,  116,  119, 
120,  143,  160,  203,  204,  207,  208,  449, 
map  (Fig.  70),  120;  Wales,  402,  403; 
Washington,  187;  Yezo,  304;  esti- 
mated fields  of  the  world  (Fig.  51),  97; 
coal  and  iron  fields  in  Alabama,  map 
(Fig.  92),  14s;  in  Central  Europe,  map 
(Fig.  268),  422;  locations,  most  valu- 
able, 447;  necessary  to  manufactories, 
119;   where  best  grades  are  found,    21. 

Coal  distillation,  industrial  products  of 
(Fig.  50),  97;  coal  tar,  55,  96,  209. 

Coaling  and  naval  stations,  216,  220,  221, 
222,  239,  263,  266,  287,  307,  349,  380. 

Coastal  Plain,  98,  99,  100. 

Coast  Range  [U.  S.],  loi,  171,  177,  193,  210. 

Cobalt,  New  Caledonia,  293;  Ontario,  248. 

Cocaine,  S.  America,  271. 

Cochabamba,  269. 

Cochineal  insect,  358. 

Cocoa  (or  cacao),  33,  89,  442,  443;  in 
Africa,  272,  354;  Antilles,  Lesser,  264; 
Brazil,  271-273,  288,  443;  Caracas,  273; 
Central  America,  256;  Ceylon,  329; 
Ecuador,  272,  273,  443;  Guam,  222; 
Gulf  of  Guinea  Islands,  359;  Haiti,  265, 
272;  Hawaii,  218;  Philippines,  226; 
Samoa,  293;  San  Thom6,  272;  Santo 
Domingo,  272;  Trinidad,  264,  272; 
Venezuela,  272;  West  Indies,  266,  272; 
the  largest  consumer,  443;  cocoa  pods 
in   Ecuador,  gathering   (Fig.    187),    274. 

^ocoanuts,  85;  in  Central  America,  256; 
Ceylon,  329;  Cuba,  236;  Fiji,  293; 
Florida,  142;  India,  329;  Indian  Ocean, 
Islands  of,  359;  Jamaica,  264;  New 
Guinea,  293;  Panama,  239;  Philippines, 
225,   227;  Porto  Rico,  232;  S.  America, 


275;  cocoanut  palm,  the  uses  of  (Pig.  42), 
86. 

Cod  fish,  79;  Alaska,  211;  Canada,  245; 
Great  Britain,  399;  Lofoten  Bank,  408; 
U.  S.,  II  I,  112,  198. 

Cod-liver  oil,  iii. 

Coffee,  34,  35,  442,  443;  in  Africa,  272, 
354.  355;  Abyssinia,  89,  353;  Arabia, 
336,  337;  Asia,  272;  Brazil,  201,  258, 
272,  273,  274,  277,  279,  287,  288,  443; 
Central  America,  257,  258,  272,  443; 
Ceylon,  330;  Colombia,  272;  Cuba,  236; 
Gulf  of  Guinea  Islands,  359;  Haiti,  264, 
265;  Hawaii,  218,  219;  India,  330; 
Jamaica,  264;  Java,  324;  Liberia,  354; 
Mexico,  257,  258,  272;  New  Caledonia, 
293;  Panama,  239;  Philippines,  225; 
Porto  Rico,  230,  231,  232,  233,  443; 
Venezuela,  272,  277;  West  Indies,  266, 
272;  U.  S.,  the  largest  consumer,  443; 
first  coffee  market  in  the  world,  415; 
picking  coffee  near  Sao  Paulo  (Fig. 
186),  273;  coffee  tree  with  berries, 
branch  of  (Fig.  161),  231. 

Cohoes,  115,  118,  129. 

Coins,  value  of  principal  foreign,  xiii. 

Coir,  329. 

Coke,  55,  96,  120,  121,  209. 

Cola  nuts,  354. 

Colgate,  190. 

Collars,  118,  402. 

CoUingwood,  250. 

Cologne,  427. 

Colombia,  269,  272,  275,  278. 

Colombo,  331. 

Colon,  239. 

Colonies,  of  Australasia,  298,  299;  Ger- 
many, 429;  the  Low  Countries,  416, 
417;  see  also  Possessions  under  coun- 
tries. 

Colorado  River,  loi,  179;  Grand  Canon, 
18;  relief  map  of  lower  (Fig.  112),  180. 

Columbia  [S.  C],  145. 

Columbia,  Gap,  170;  River,  loi,  177,  181, 
190,  191,  193.  194.  195- 

Columbus,  164. 

Colza  seed,  369. 

Commerce,  growth  and  factors  of,  1-97; 
beginnings  of,  1-6;  despised  by  Romans, 
9;  character  of  mediaeval,  9;  character 
of  modern,  14;  Mediterranean  Age  of, 
7-14;  Oceanic  Age  of,  13,  14;  factors  in 
natural  control  of,  15;  depends  on  land 
and  sea,  15-28;  affected  by  high  plains, 
18,  lowlands,  18,  coast  lines,  24,  loca- 
tion, 26;  depends  on  climate,  29-38; 
relation  of  wind  to,  31,  32;  in  the 
Temperate  zone,  38;  motive  power 
behind,  39;  depends  on  man,  39-48; 
influence  of  custom  and  morality,  41; 
languages  of,  42;  government  aids,  43; 
bearing  of  education  on,  47,  48; 
depends  on  economic  forces,  49-58; 
development  of  transportation,  59-77; 
principal  raw  materials  of,  78-97; 
foundations  of,  196;  basis  of,  440; 
world  industries  and,  440-455;  organi- 
zation of,  451,  452;  transportation  as 
a  factor  in  international,  452-454; 
based  on  economic  development,  455; 
based  on  climate,  455;  development  of 
world  commerce  (Fig.  25),  59;  commerce 
of    principal    countries    of    the    world, 


THE  INDEX 


XXVU 


xiv-xix;  see  also  under  names  of 
countries. 

Commercial,  sites,  typical  military,  naval, 
and,  28;  highways,  map  (Fig.  14), 
between  28,  29;  museums,  306,  384, 
416;  policies,  effect  of,  44;  schools,  306, 
373,  384,  416,  418. 

Competition  and  war,  economic,  57-58. 

Concepcion,  280,  281. 

Condiments,  88,  89. 

Congo  River,  34,  354,  397- 

Conneaut,  164. 

Connellsville,  120,  121,  164,  209. 

Conquest,  right  of,  344. 

Conservation  of  natural  resources,  207- 
209. 

Constantinople,  10,  11,  13.  343>  363.  368, 
369,  3«4,  396,  407,  426,  430,  438,  453- 

Constanza  (Kustenji),  369,  370. 

Cook  Islands,  298. 

Coolies,  in  treadmill  pumping  water  for 
flooding  rice  fields  (Fig.  211),  313; 
with  loads  and  resting  sticks  (Fig.  213), 
316. 

Cooperative  buying  and  selling  associa- 
tions, Germany,  420. 

Copals,  354,  417. 

Copenhagen,  411,  412,  426. 

Copiapo,  283. 

Copper,  21,  91,  93,  95,  122,  448;  Africa.  S., 
356,  357;  Alaska,  212;  Andes,  283; 
Argentina,  283;  Arizona,  185;  Aus- 
tralia, 296;  Canada,  203,  247;  Chile, 
296;  d'hina,  315;  Chosen,  308;  Cuba,  237; 
Cyprus,  7;  France,  393;  Germany,  12, 
421;  Iberian  Peninsula,  203,  378; 
Japan,  203,  304,  307;  Mexico,  203,  258; 
Michigan,  161,  163;  Montana,  91,  185; 
Newfoundland,  253;  Philippines,  226; 
Peru,  275;  S.  America,  203;  Sweden, 
409;  Tennessee,  142;  Turkey,  341; 
Urals,  433;  U.  S.,  2,  203,  204  Superior 
copper  and  iron  district,  map  (Pig.  99), 
161. 

Copper  Valley,  212,  214,  216. 

Copra,  Ceylon.  329;  Cruam,  222;  Malay 
Peninsula,  325;  Oceania,  292;  Phil- 
ippines, 22s,  227;  Samoa,  221,  see  also 
Cocoanuts. 

Coral,  79,  373;  limestone,  130. 

Cordilleran  Highland,  98,   100,  loi,   195. 

Cordoba,  282,  379. 

Cordova,  216. 

Corfu,  366. 

Corinth,  8,  27. 

Corinthian  Canal,  74,  365;  vessel  travers- 
ing the  (Fig.  243),  366. 

Corinto,  261. 

Cork,  199;  oak,  351,  371,  377- 

Corn,  54,  87,88,  159,  172,  181,  433;  in  Amer- 
ica, 87;  Argentina,  282;  Australia,  296; 
Austria-Hungary,  87,  382;  Canada,  246; 
Central  America,  257;  Egypt,  346; 
France,  392;  Greece,  365;  Italy,  371; 
Philippines,  225,  227;  Porto  Rico,  231; 
Roumania,  282,  369;  Russia,  282; 
S.  America,  87,  273,  282;  U.  S.,  87,  135, 
140,  154-156,  200,  282;  its  influence 
in  occupation  of  America  by  white 
race,  105;  exports  including  corn  meal 
(Fig.  190),  282;  Kafir,  179;  world  crop 
(Fig.  43),  87;  plant,  industrial  uses  of 
(Fig.  45),  89. 


Cornstarch,  114. 

Coronel,  283,  284. 

Corral,  284. 

Corsica,  376,  392,  397- 

Costa  Rica,  255,  260. 

Cotton,  35.  36,  54.  59,  89,  136,  137,  443. 
444;  production  and  value  of  (Fig.  46), 
90;  in  Africa,  354,  355;  Australia,  296; 
Brazil,  136,  274,  288;  Ceylon,  330; 
China,  3 13,  3 14, 321;  Chosen,  308;  Egypt, 
90,  136,  346;  Greece,  365;  Haiti,  265; 
India,  90,  136,  307,  330,  332;  Iranian 
Plateau,  333,  334;  Malaysia,  325;  Mexico, 
136,  257,  259;  Peru,  136,  274;  Porto  Rico, 
231;  Russia,  136,  433;  St.  Christopher, 
264;  Sud4n,  352;  Turkey,  340;  U.  S.,  55, 
90,  130,  131,  136,  137,  140,  200,  202; 
Virginia,  105;  picking,  by  hand  and  by 
machinery  (Fig.  86),  138;  map  showing 
distribution  of  (Fig.  85),  137;  destination 
of  U.  S.  crop  (Fig.  91),  144;  industrial 
uses  of  the  cotton  plant  (Fig.  47),  91; 
manufactures,  444,  445  (Fig.  279),  444; 
Austria,  Hungary,  387,  444;  Belgium, 
444;  Brazil,  276,  444;  China,  320,  444; 
(Jzecho-Slovakia,  383;  France,  387,  394, 
444;  Germany,  387,  423,  444.  445; 
Great  Britain,  387,  402,  444,  445; 
Greece,  365;  India,  331,  332,  387,  444; 
Italy,  373.  375.  387.  444!  Japan,  306, 
387,  444;  Netherlands,  387,  444;  Peru, 
276;  Portugal,  378;  Russia,  387,  434, 
438,  444;  Spain,  387;  Sweden,'  409; 
Switzerland,  387-389,  444;  U.  S.,  59, 
117,  118,  144,  145,  337,  387. .444.  450; 
exports  of  cotton  goods  per  spindle  (Fig. 
251).  387;  cotton  and  cotton-seed  oil  (Fig. 
84),  136;  cotton-seed  oil,  55.  136.  144- 

Council  Bluffs,  164. 

Courtrai,  413. 

Covington,  144. 

Crabs,  in. 

Cracow,  383. 

Cremona,  372. 

Creosote,  133. 

Crete,  340,  362. 

Crimea,  432. 

Cripple  Creek,  185. 

Crops,  value  of  all  [U.  S.],  map  (Fig.  133). 
199,  200. 

Ctesiphon,  6,  342. 

Cuba,  122,  148;  cities,  238;  climate,  235; 
commerce,  237,  238,  (Fig.  166),  237; 
exports,  144,  201,  237,  238;  forests,  235; 
imports,  237,  238;  manufactures,  237; 
map  (Fig.  164),  235;  minerals,  237; 
population,  229,  235,  237,  262;  postal 
rates,  61;  products,  144,  201,  235-237; 
railroads,  237,  238;  relation  to  U.  S.,  234, 
238;  surface,  235. 

Cuffs,  1 18,  402. 

Culebra,  234,  266. 

Cumberland  Gap,  20,  107,  146. 

Curasao,  267;  Harbor  (Fig.   179),   267. 

Currants,  365,  366. 

Currents,  distribution  of  ocean  (Fig.  216), 
37- 

Custom  and  morality,  influence  of,  41. 

Cutch,  329. 

Cuxhaven,  427. 

Cuyaba,  285. 

Cuyahoga  River,  106. 

Cuyuna  iron  range,  163. 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Cuz  0,  269. 
Cypress,  132,  302. 
Cyprus,  7,  340. 

Czecho  -  Slovakia        (Serb  -  Croat  -  Slovene 
State).  367,  381,  383. 

Dagupan,  227. 

Dairy   products,    79,    80;    Argentina,    281; 
Denmark,  80,  81;  France,  391;  Holland, 
80;     Iberian     Peninsula,     377;     Kansas, 
156;    Minnesota,    156;    Nebraska,    156; 
Netherlands,     416;     New     York,     113, 
114;  Russia,  439;  Switzerland,  80,  389; 
U.    S.,    80,    156,    174,    199;    Wisconsin, 
156;     and     substitutes     (Fig.     38),     80; 
see  also  Butter,  Cheese,  Oleomargarine. 
Dallas,  143. 
Dalles,  the,  190,  191. 
Dalny,  320. 
Damascus,  6,  337,  341,  342,  343;  swords, 

305. 
Danbury,  1 18. 
Dannemora  mines,  409. 
Danube   River,   367,   368,   369,   370,   37s, 
381,  384,  38s,  389.  395.  422,  42s,  426; 
States,  commerce  of  the,  369,  370. 
Danville,  13s. 
Dardanelles,  28. 
Dar-es-Salam,  354. 
Darwin,  297,  298. 

Dates,   33,    85;   Africa,   352;  Arabia,   337; 
Arizona,    183;    California,    183;    Ceylon, 
329;    Egypt,    346;    India,    329;     Meso- 
potamia, 340;  Sahara,  352;  Tunis,  351; 
orchard     near     Tempe,     Arizona     (Fig. 
118),    185;   date   palms,   Biskra,  Algeria 
(Fig.  21),  36. 
Davenport,  157,  164. 
Dayton,  164. 
Decatur,  159. 
Deccan  River,  331. 
Decreasing  returns,  law  of,  55-57. 
Deep  Harbor,  234. 
Delagoa  Bay,  357. 
Delaware,  Bay,  109.   128;  River,  99,   122, 

125,  127;  and  Raritan  Canal,  127. 
Denmark,    407;    commerce,    facilities    for, 
411,   412;    exports,    80,    411    (Fig.    262), 
411;   map   (Fig.    258),   408;   possessions, 
242,  266,  412;  resources,  81,  411,  420. 
Denver,  27,  148,  189,  192. 
Deodar,  329. 
Depot  Harbor,  250. 
Derbent  Pass,  435. 
Derby,  402,  403. 
Des  Moines,  159. 
Detroit,  164,  i'i$,  169. 

Diamonds,  95;  Africa,  356,  358;  Brazil,  275. 
Dieppe,  396. 
Divi-divi  pods,  271. 
Dnieper  River.  434,  435, 
Dogger-Bank,  400. 
Dogs,  in  Belgium,  413;  dog  sled  in  Alaska, 

traveling  by  (Fig.   148),  215. 
Doldrums,  .>,.>,,  34. 
Dominica,  264. 
Dominican    Republic     (Santo     Domingo), 

.-•'>.-,,   272. 
Donets  coal  field,  433,  434. 
Don  River,  432.  43S. 
Dortmund-Ems  Canal,  427. 
Dover,  405. 
Drave  River,  364. 


Drawn  work,  Mexico,  259. 

Dry  farming  in  the  West  [U.  S.],  179,  180; 

map  (Fig.  114),  181. 
Dry  land  areas,  map  (Fig.  113),  181. 
Dublin,  404. 
Dubuque,  157,  161. 

Duluth,  27,  129,  157,  164,  167,  168,  252. 
Duma,  430. 
Duna  River,  434,  437. 
Dundee,  402. 
Dunkirk,  394,  396. 
Dunvegan,  246,  247. 
Durango,  258. 
Durban,  357. 
Durham,  144. 
Dusseldorf,  423. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  324,  325,  415. 
Dutch  Harbor,  210. 
Dutch  West  Indies,  242,  266,  267. 
Dvina,  434.  437. 
Dyes,    7,   55,   96;   France,   392;   Germany, 

423;  New  Jersey,  118;  Switzerland,  388. 
Dye  woods,  a,  235. 

Eagle,  214,  216. 

East  Indies,  exports  and  products,  85,  86, 
199,  272,  415;  Dutch,  32s,  415. 

East  Liverpool,  165. 

East  London,  357. 

Easton,  122. 

East  River,  125. 

East  St.  Louis,  164. 

Ebony,  in  Haiti,  265;  Porto  Rico,  231. 

Ebro  River,  377,  379. 

Economic  development,  nature  of,  49,  50. 

Ecuador,  277,  279;  exports,  272,  276. 

Edmonton.  245,  250,  252. 

Education,  technical,  48;  Germany,  48, 
4 1 8,  451;   Netherlands,  416. 

Eger,  383. 

Eggs,  80;  Canaries,  358;  Denmark,  411; 
Iberian  Peninsula,  377;  Italy,  371,  375; 
Russia,  431.  439. 

Egypt,  5,  6,  8,  38.  335,  361.  406,  412; 
commerce,  8,  349;  conquest  of.  by 
Arabs,  10;  by  Turks,  13;  irrigation, 
70,  312,  345,  348;  the  "shaduf"  (Fig. 
232),  34s;  natural  resources,  90,  346; 
renaissance  of,  348. 

Eisenerz,  383. 

Elba,  373. 

Elbe  River,  405,  425-427,  384;  -Trave 
Canal,  427. 

Elephants,  in  Ceylon  and  India,  328;  haul- 
ing teak  logs  in  Burma  (Fig.  221),  328. 

Elevator,  modern  type  of,  at  Minneapolis 
(Fig.  22),  45. 

Elgin,  164. 

Elizabeth,  126. 

Elmira,  1 12,  115. 

El  Paso,  143,  149. 

El  Triunfo,  261. 

Embargo  Act,  no. 

Emden,  427. 

Emeralds,  CcilomVjia,  275. 

Emery,  in  Greccf.-.  365;  Turkey,  341. 

Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun,  300,  301. 

Engadine  Valley,  389. 

England,  2.),  31,  250,  407,  426,  429;  agricul- 
ture, 56;  export  of  coal,  208;  see  also 
Great  Britain. 

English  Harbor,  Fanning  Island  (Fig.  10), 
25- 


THE  INDEX 


Ennsbrenner,  385. 

Environment,  adaptation  to,  104,  105; 
influence  of,  105,  106. 

Erie,  106,  122;  Barge  Canal,  107,  108,  113, 
118,  127,  128,  129,  167;  Lake,  106,  107, 
118,  121,  127,  164,  166,  167,  169. 

Erivafl,  435. 

Ermine,  Siberia,  431. 

Erzgebirge,  383.  421- 

Esdraelon,  340,  342. 

Esquimau,  251. 

Essen,  423. 

Esthonia,  431,  437. 

Euboea,  365. 

Eucalyptus,  in  Australia  ,294. 

Euphrates,  s,  6,  338. 

Eureka   193. 

Europe,  8,  9,  30,  250;  climate  and  sur- 
face, 360,  361,  fur,  198;  map  (Fig. 
239),  between  360,  361-  north  central, 
11;  peoples,  362,  363;  population,  dens- 
ity of,  map  (Fig.  240),  facing  361; 
rainfall,  29,  37,  360,  361,  map  (Fig. 
241),  361;  why  civilized,  24,  361,  362. 

European  predominance  in.  S.  American 
markets,  284,  288-290. 

Evansville,  159. 

Everett,  195. 

Exchange,  machinery  of,  46,  47. 

Exports,  see  under  countries. 

Fairbanks,  212,  215,  216. 

Fairs,  origin  of,  i,  2'  mediseval,  10,  Ger- 
many, 427;  Russia,  438;   "World's,"  10. 

Falkland  Islands,  31,  281,  287. 

Fall  Line,  116,  123,  125,  130,  131,  i44.  146. 

Fall  River,  117,  118. 

False  Bay,  358. 

Fanning  Islands,  25,  221;  English  Harbor 
(Fig.  10),  25. 

Fans,  316. 

Farming,  53;  extensive  and  intensive,  51, 
54-  North  Atlantic  section,  113-114; 
in  the  West,  179,  180;  by  steam  on 
Pacific  slope  (Fig.  lis),  182;  eastern 
Canada,  245,  246;  western  Canada, 
246-247;  in  Germany,  420;  three-field 
system,   431;   see  also  Agriculture. 

Farm  products  [U.  S.],  value  of  (Fig.  134). 
200. 

Fashoda,  348. 

Fayura,  346. 

Feathers,  78,  200,  259. 

Federal  Reserve  Banks,  47. 

Felting,  83. 

Fernandina,  133,  147. 

Fertilizers,  92,  93,  284,  420. 

Fiber  crops,  90;  production  and  value 
of  leading  textile  (Fig.  46),  90. 

Figs,  36,  85;  Algeria,  351;  Egypt,  346; 
Greece,  365;  Italy,  372;  Japan,  303; 
Smyrna,  340;   U.  S.,  183. 

Fiji,  291,  293. 

Films,  moving-picture,  190. 

Finland,  411,  431,  433,  437,  439. 

Fir,  Douglas,  84;  Canada,  24s;  U.  S., 
175.  198. 

Firearms,  Belgium,  414;   U.  S.,  119. 

Fireworks,  China,  316. 

Fish,  12,  78,  79;  Alaska,  198;  China,  320; 
France,  302;   Japan,  301,  302;    Norway, 

410;  u.  s.,  78, 133. 151. 197. 198. 

Fisheries,   of   the   Adriatic,   382;     Alaska, 


210,  211;  Australasia,  294;  British 
Isles,  399,  400;  Canada,  244,  24s; 
China,  312;  France,  393;  Germany,  421; 
Hawaii,  217;  Japan,  301,  302;  Iberian 
Peninsula,  378;  Italy,  373;  Marmora 
Sea,  368;  Netherlands,  413;  Newfound- 
land, 253;  Norway,  408;  Philippines, 
224,  225;  U.  S.,  no.  III,  112,  132, 
133.  175,  177.207. 

Fishguard,  405. 

Fishing,  banks  in  Atlantic,  American,  map 
(Fig.  6s),  112;  bank,  principal  Euro- 
pean, map  (Fig.  256),  400;  industry  of 
U.  S.  (Fig.  131),  198. 

Fishing  tribes,  their  development  into 
seafaring  and  commercial  peoples,  2. 

Fitchburg,  117. 

Fiume,  385. 

Flax,  production  and  value  of,  90;  Austria, 
Hungary,  383-  Bohemia  382;  Belgium, 
414;  Egypt,  90  France,  392,  394; 
Great  Britain,  402;  Germany,  420,  424; 
Ireland,  399;  .  Italy,  372;  Lys  Valley, 
413;  Roumania,  369;  Russia,  382,  fiber 
crop  of  world  (Fig.  272),  432,  438; 
Switzerland,  90;  U.  S.,  155;  seed  crop 
of  world  (Fig.  97),  154;  fla.xseed  in 
Algeria,  154;  Argentina,  282;  France, 
154;  U.  S.,  154.  iss,  160. 

Florence,  193,  374. 

Flores,  291. 

Florida  East  Coast  Railway  bridge  (Fig. 
94),  148. 

Flour,  Brazil,  276;  Hungary,  383;  Great 
Britain,  402;  Manchuria,  439;  Rouma- 
nia, 369;  Russia,  433;  U.  S.,  114,  144, 
150,  160,  189. 

Flowers,  France,  392;   Holland,  413. 

Flume,  for  conveying  timber  out  of  moun- 
tains (Fig.  107),  174. 

Flushing.  415. 

Flying  machine,  see  Aeroplane. 

Folkestone,  405. 

Foochow,  318. 

Food  and  Drugs  Act,  45. 

Forbes's  Trail,  107. 

Fores*  reserves,  in  Hawaii,  217;  Porto 
Rico,  231;  U.  S.,  areas  originally 
wooded  and  national  reserves  (Fig.  60), 
facing  108. 

Forestry,  economic  importance  of,  23,  24; 
per  cent  of  area  forested  in  chief  timber- 
producing  countries  (Fig.  9),  24;  effects 
of  forests,  15;  relation  to  man,  21,  22; 
how  they  affect  soil,  water  power,  and 
navigation,  22;  how  they  affect  climate, 
23;  reforestation,  207;  natural  seeding 
from  long-leaf  pine   (Fig.    143),   208. 

Forests  and  forest  products,  84,  85;  in 
Africa,  346;  Alaska,  211,  212;  Aus- 
tralasia, 294;  Austria-Hungary,  24,  381; 
Canada,  24,  245;  Central  America,  256; 
China,  312;  (Thosen,  308;  Finjand,  24; 
France,  390;  Germany,  24,  419;  Italy, 
371;  Japan,  24,  302;  Panama,  239; 
Philippines,  224,  225;  Russia,  24,  431; 
S.  America,  271,  281;  Sweden,  24,  408; 
Switzerland,  386;  Turkey,  339;  U.  S., 
24,  112,  132,  133,  151,  153,  174,  175 
(Fig.  132),  198,  199. 

Formosa,  see  Taiwan. 

Fort  de  France,  266. 

Forth  River,  404. 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Fox,  in  Alaska,  210;  Canada,  24s;  Chosen, 
308. 

Fox  River,  106,  166. 

France,  367,  385,  390-397;  Alsace-Lor- 
raine, 393;  canals,  394,  395;  climate  and 
surface,  390;  cornmerce  (Fig.  255),  396, 
397;  Customs  Union  of,  429;  exports,  391, 
392,  390,  449,  450;  fisheries,  393;  forest 
and  animal  products,  390,  391 ;  imports, 
396;  manufactures,  331,  393,  394;  map 
(Fig.  253),  391;  minerals,  163,  203,  393, 
448;  occupations,  451;  population,  201, 
3(>3,  390,  450;  products  of  the  soil,  392; 
possessions,  266,  293,  332,  349-353,  359, 
380,  397;  rail  and  inland  water  trans- 
portation, xix;  railway  mileage  (Fig. 
289),  452;  trade  routes  and  centers,  394- 
396;  tonnage  merchant  marine  (Fig. 
261),  410;  sea-going  (Fig.  292),  454; 
water  power,  393;   water  ways.  394-396. 

Frankfurt,  10,  419,  424,  426. 

Frankincense,  8. 

Fray  Bentos,  284. 

Frazer  River,  loi. 

Freemantle,  298. 

Freiberg,  421. 

French  Broad  River,  146. 

Fruit,  51,  85,  86;  Africa,  356;  Australia, 
296;  California,  15,  181,  183  (Fig.  117), 
184;  Florida,  142;  France,  392;  Ger- 
many, 421;  (Jreat  Britain,  399;  Iberian 
Peninsula,  377;  Iranian  Peninsula,  333; 
Italy,  375;  New  Zealand,  296-  Philip- 
pines, 225;  Porto  Rico,  232;  S.  America, 
282;  Tahiti,  293;  Tasmania,  296;  Tur- 
key, 340,  368;  U.  S.,  114,  140,  iss,  174, 
200. 

Fumigation,  with  poisonous  gas  to  kill 
insects  in  fruit  trees  (Fig.  117),  184. 

Funchal,  359. 

Furniture  mfg.,  Austria,  383;  France,  394; 
Germany,  424;  Scandinavian  Peninsula, 
409;  U.  S.,  144,  158. 

Furs,  8,  83,  78;  importance  of,  in  Middle 
Ages,  11;  principal  market  for,  427;  in 
Alaska,  210,  214;  Canada,  78,  245; 
Russia,  431;  Siberia,  78;    U.  S.  151,  198. 

Fusan,  309. 

Fustic,  256. 

Gadez  (Cadiz),  7. 

Gaillard  (Culebra)  Cut,  Frontispiece. 

Galapagos  Islands,  242,  279. 

Galatz,  370. 

Galicia  (Poland),  383. 

Gallipoli  Peninsula,  368. 

Galveston,  25,  148,  149. 

Gambia  River,  354. 

Gambler,  East  Indies,  199;    Malaysia,  325. 

Ganges  River,  18,  328,  331. 

Garonne  River,  395. 

Gary,  164. 

Gas,  55,  95;  Anatolia,  341;  Illinois,  160; 
Indiana,  160,  165;  Kansas,  160,  161, 
203;  Ohio,  160,  203;  Ontario,  248; 
Pennsylvania,  123,  203;  U.  S.,  120,  14,;, 
203,  204,  207;  W.  Virginia,  203;  fields 
in  U.  S.  (Fig.  71),  121. 

Gasoline,  96,  373. 

Gate  cities,  100,  129,  146,  169. 

Gelatine,  158. 

Gellivara  iron  district,  409,  411. 

Genessee  Road,  Great,  107. 


Genessee  Valley,  52,  113. 

Geneva,  374,  388,  389;   Lake  of,  386,  389. 

Genoa,   11,  373,  374.  375.  389,  395.  426. 

Georgetown,  278. 

Georgia,  434,  in  Transcaucasia,  434. 

Georgian  Bay,  24s,  250,  251. 

German  Empire,  map  (Fig.  267),  419. 

Germany,  54,  56;  agriculture,  scientific, 
420;  commerce,  288,  289,  425,  427,  428 
(Pig.  271),  428;  education,  48,  418;  ex- 
ports, 409,  421,  428,  449,  450;  farm  prod- 
ucts, 420,  421 ;  fisheries,  421 ;  forest  and 
animal  products.  419,  420;  imports,  421, 
428;  manufactures,  89,  331,  422,  423, 
424,  449;  minerals,  203,  330,  421,  422; 
population,  2or,  363,  381,  418,  450,  451; 
position,  424,425;  possessions,  222,  292, 
321,  322,  429;  postal  rates,  61;  rank 
among  nations  due  to  scientific  training, 
451;  seaports  and  fairs,  426,  427;  trans- 
portation, 425,  426,  452,  xviii;  tonnage 
merchant  marine  (Fig.  261),  410;  sea- 
going tonnage  (Fig.  292),  454. 

Ghent,  74,  413,  414,  415. 

Gibraltar,  380,  405;    Strait  of,  28,  351. 

Gijon,379. 

Gila  Valley,  193. 

Ginger,Ceylon  and  India,  330;  Jamaica, 264. 

Ginseng,  308. 

Glacial  soils,  in  U.  S.  (Fig.  63),   no. 

Glacier,  effects  of  the,  109,  1 10. 

Glasgow,  398,  403,  405. 

Glass,  7,  8,  92;  Belgium,  414;  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia,  383;  France,  394;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 403;  Indiana,  165;  Pennsylvania, 
123;  Russia,  434;  Spain,  378. 

Glens  Falls,  1 15. 

Gloucester,  112. 

Gloversville,  117. 

Gloves,  Austria,  383;  Denmark,  411; 
France,  391;  N.  Y.,  117. 

Glucose,  88. 

Glue,  158. 

Goa,  332. 

Goats,  79,  80;  Angora  and  Cashmere,  83; 
Africa,  351,  356;  Asia,  315;  Austria, 
Hungary,  381;  France,  391;  Greece, 
364;  Hawaii,  217;  Iberian  Peninsula, 
377;  Iranian  Peninsula,  332;  Italy,  371; 
Montenegro,  367;  Porto  Rico,  232; 
Russia,   432;   Turkey,   36S;   U.   S.,    174. 

Gobelin  tapestries,  394. 

Goderich,  250. 

Gogebic,  163. 

Gold,  9,  21,  95,  448;  Africa,  8,  91,  203, 
353,  354.  356,  357,  3S8;  Alaska,  212, 
214,  215;  Argentina,  283;  Asia,  203; 
Australia,  203,  296,  299;  California,  15, 
183,  185,  194,  258,  296;  Canada,  247; 
China,  315;  Chosen,  308;  Colorado,  185; 
Dakota,  S.,  161;  Georgia,  142;  Greece, 
365;  Guiana,  275;  India,  330;  Mada- 
gascar, 359;  Mexico,  258,  261;  New 
Guinea,  293;  New  Zealand,  296;  Nicar- 
agua, 258;  N.  Carolina,  142;  Panama, 
239;  Philippines,  226;  Russia,  203,  433; 
Siberia,  433;  S.  America,  283;  U.  S.,  161, 
203,  204;  dredge^  modern,  at  work  (Fig. 
120),  187. 

Gold  Coast,  354. 

Goldfield,  65. 

Good  Hope, Cape,  28,31,298,346;  Fort,  247. 

Gbta  Canal,  410. 


THE   INDEX 


XXXI 


Gothenburg,  409,  410. 

Government,  inspection,  45;  service  of, 
43.  44;  peoples,  430. 

Grain  harvesting.evolution  of  (Fig.  9S),iS2. 

Grains,  map  showing  yield  of  all  (Fig. 
96),  153- 

Grand  Canal,  317,  318,  319. 

Grand  Canon  of  the  Arkansas  (Fig.  6),  19. 

Grand  Rapids,  158. 

Granite,  20,  118,  119,  142. 

Grape  fruit,  142. 

Grapes,  36,  8s;  Algeria,  351;  Australia, 
295;  Bulgaria,  367;  Germany,  421; 
Greece,  365;  Iberian  Peninsula,  378; 
Rouniania,  369;  Russia,  432;  U.  S.,  183. 

Graphite,  value  of  (Fig.  224),  330;  in 
Austria,  330;  Czecho-Slovakia,  383; 
Ceylon,  330;  Germany,  422;  Siberia, 
433;  U.  S.,  330. 

Graz,  383. 

Grazing  industry,  81,  (Fig.  106),  173; 
decline  of  the,  172,  174. 

Great  Basin,  loi. 

Great  Britain,  24,  31,  398-406;  climate 
and  surface,  398;  commerce,  262,  405 
(Fig.  257),  406;  exports,  405,  406,  449, 
450;  fisheries,  399,  400;  imports,  401, 
405,  406;  map  (Fig.  238"),  facing  360; 
manufactures,  331,  401 ;  textile  industry, 
401,  402,  449;  grain  and  sugar  industry, 
402;  causes  of  prominence  in  manufac- 
tures, 450,  451;  mineral  resources,  163, 
203,  ojoo-403;  population,  201,  398, 
450,  451;  postal  rates,  61;  products  of 
the  soil,  398,  399;  possessions,  405-406; 
in  Africa,  352,  353,  355,  359;  Egypt, 
348;  Asia,  324,  337,  340;  China,  322; 
India,  327;  Islands  of  Indian  Ocean, 
359;  Mediterranean  Sea,  380;  West 
Indies,  263;  railway  mileage,  452; 
rail  and  inland  water  transportation, 
xviii;  seaports,  404;  situation  and 
transportation  facilities,  403,  404, 
xviii;  sea-going  tonnage  (Fig.  292),  454; 
tonnage  of  merchant  marine  (Fig. 
261),  410. 

Great  Falls,  190. 

Great  Plains,  100,  130,  132,  170,  179. 

Great  Valley,  99. 

Great  Yarmouth,  400. 

Greece,  8,  24,  38,  361-366,  368,  370,  374. 
376;  products,  364;  commerce,  366. 

Greeks,  6,  7,  8,  9,  363,  364. 

Green  Bay,  157. 

Greenland,  412. 

Greenwich,  46. 

Grenada,  264. 

Grenoble,  391. 

Grimsby,  400. 

Grindstones,  163. 

Guadalajara,  259,  260. 

Guadalquivir  River,  377,  379. 

Guadeloupe,  266. 

Guam,  222,  291,  293;  map  (Fig.  154),  222. 

Guanacos,  270. 

Guanajuato,  258. 

Gudno,  Africa,  356;  Oceania,  292,  293; 
S.  America,  275;  W.  Indies,  264;  Act, 
29S;  Islands,  221. 

Guanta,  278. 

Guantanamo,  234. 

Guatemala,  255,  256,  260,  261. 

Guayaquil,  277,  279. 


Guaymas,  260. 

Guiana,   270,   275,    278;   mountains,    268. 
Guinea,  Gulf  of,  344,  358;  Islands,  359. 
Gulf  Coast,  132;  region,  commercial  routes 

and  centers  of,  147-149. 
Gum,  133;   arable,  346,  351,  352;    Kauri, 

294; -lac,  329;  tragacanth,  339. 
Gutta-percha,  84,   85;  in   Malaysia,   325; 

Philippines,  224;  S.  America,  273;  tree, 

freshly   tapped,    with   leaves   spread    to 

catch  the  flow  (Fig.  41),  84 
Gypsum,   123;  Alaska,   213;   France,   393; 

U.  S.,  165,  187.  ' 

Haddock,  in,  198,  245. 

Hadramut  Valley,  336. 

Haidar  Pasha,  343. 

Haifa,  34a,  342. 

Haifong,  327. 

Haiti,  232,  262,  264,  265. 

Hakodate,  307. 

Halibut,  211,  399. 

Halifax,  125,  244,  251. 

Halle,  423. 

Hamburg,  27,  75,  384,  404,  411,  418,  426, 

427,  431;  rank  as  seaport,  453;  -Amer- 
ican steamship  line,  266. 
Hamilton,  164,  249. 
Hammocks,  259. 
Hammond,  159. 
Hams,  411. 
Handicrafts,     Ceylon     and     India,     331; 

Japan,  304,  305,  307;  Switzerland,  388; 

hand  weaving  in  Ireland,  402. 
Hankow,  316,  318,  319. 
Hanoi,  327. 
Hanover,  421,  422. 
Hanse,  11,  12,  418,  427. 
Harbin,  314,  320,  439. 
Harbors,  formation  of,  24-26. 
Harpers  Ferry,  20. 
Harrisburg,  122. 
Hartford,  119. 
Harvesters,    which  cut,  thresh,  and  sack 

the  grain  in   one  operation    (Fig.   115), 

182. 
Harwich,  405. 
Harz  Mountains,  12,  421. 
Hats,     118;    plaited    straw,     Cuba,     237; 

Chosen,  308;  Panama,  Ecuador,  276. 
Hauran  Plateau,  340. 
Havana,  149,  234-338. 
Haverhill,  117. 
Hawaii,    194,    216-220,    221,    292,    293; 

commerce,    219,    220    (Fig.    151),    219; 

exports,    219,    260;    imports,    219,    220; 

map    (Fig.    149),    217;   population,    216, 

219   (Fig.    151),   219;   natural   resources, 

217,  218,  219. 

Hay,  Australia,  299;  Canada,  247;  U.  S., 
114,   181,  200;  map  (Fig.  66),   113. 

Heat  and  light,  causes  affecting,   30,  31. 

Helsingfors,  437. 

Hemlock,    112,    116,    153,    160,    198,    249. 

Hemp,  90,  148;  production  and  value 
(Fig.  46),  90;  Belgium,  414;  China,  313; 
France,  392,  394;  Hungary,  iS2\  Italy 
372;  Japan,  303,  306;  Kentucky,  135; 
Philippines,  225,  226;  shipping  Manila 
hemp  in  original  bundles  (Fig.  157), 
226;  Russia,  382,  fiber  crop  of  world 
(Fig.  273).  432,  434.  438;  brake,  136. 

Herat,  334,  343. 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Hermoupolis,  366. 

Herring,  Alaska,  211;  Canada,  245;  Great 
Britain,  399;  Norway,  408;  U.  S.,  iii, 
198;  pursing  a  seine  about  a  school  of 
herring  in  Boston  Harbor  (Fig.  37),  79. 

Herzegovina,  (Serb-Croat-Slovene  State), 
385. 

Heyst  (Zeebrugge),  415. 

Hickory,  133. 

Hides,  12,  200;  Africa,  358;  Arabia,  337; 
China,  321;  India,  329,  332;  Malay 
Peninsula,  325;  S.  America,  287;  Turkey, 
339:  U.  S.,  18;  value  of  U.  S.  import,  200. 

Highways,  to  the  West,  early,  map  (Fig. 
59),  107;  to  the  Pacific,  map  (Fig.  124), 
191:  Commercial  (Fig.  14),  bet.  28,  29. 

Himalayas,  31 1,  328,  360. 

Hobart,  297,  298. 

Hoboken,  126;  West  Hoboken,  118. 

Hodaida,  336. 

Hogs,  see  Swine. 

Holb"rook,  188. 

Holland,  70,  dairying  in,  80;  exports, 
413;  imports,  416;  natural  resources, 
413;  tonnage  of  merchant  marine  (Fig. 
261),  410;  trade  routes  and  centers, 
415;  see  also  Netherlands. 

Holyhead,  405. 

Holyoke,  112. 

Homestead,  122. 

Honda,  278. 

Honduras,  254,  256,  258. 

Honey,  80,  90;  Cuba,  236;  France,  391; 
Greece,  80,  364. 

Hong  Kong,  27,  241,  321,  322,  326,  406; 
rank  as  seaport,  453;  Harbor  (Fig.  217), 
322. 

Honolulu,  216,  220 ;    map  (Fig.  152),  220. 

Hops,  87;  Bavarian  Plateau,  421;  Bo- 
hemia, 382;  Germany,  421;  Oregon, 
181;  U.S.,  114;  irrigated  hop  yard  on 
Pacific  slope  (Fig.  116),  183. 

Horse  latitudes,  32,  35,  36. 

Horses,  79;  Asia,  315;  Australia,  295; 
Belgium,  413;  France,  391;  Germany, 
420;  Hawaii,  217;  Hungary,  381; 
Iberian  Peninsula,  377;  Kentucky,  134; 
Queensland,  295;  Russia,  432;  U.  S., 
134.  172,  199- 

Hosiery,  402,  424. 

Houston,  144. 

Hudson  Bay,  100,  250;  Company,  245. 

Hudson  River,  99,  100,  106,  108,  115,  116, 
122,  123,  126,  127,  129,  249. 

Hull,  405. 

Humber,  the,  404,  405. 

Humboldt  Bay,  193. 

Hungary,  364;  see  also  Austria-Hungary. 

Hunters  and  fishers,  trade  among,  2. 

Huron,  Lake,  167,  169,  250,  251. 

Hwang-ho,  31 1,  312,  316,  322. 

Hydraulic  elevator,  on  Glacier  Creek, 
Alaska  (Fig.  14s),  212. 

Hymettos,  Mount,  80,  364. 

Iberian  Peninsula,  376-380;  climate  and 
surface,  376,  377;  iiihabitants,  376; 
map  (Fig.  246),  376;  trade  routes  and 
centers,  378,  379. 

Iceland,  400,  412. 

Ichang,  319. 

Idaho,  185. 

Idria,  383. 


Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  167. 

Illinois  River,  106,  166,  167,  169. 

Iloilo,  228. 

Imperial  Valley,  179,  193. 

India,  250,   295,   29S,   327-332.  361,   37S. 

426,   436;     animal   products,    328,   329; 

climate    and    surface,    328;     commerce, 

331.  332  (Fig.  226),  332;  cultivated 
products,  90,  139,  307,  312,  329, 
330;  exports,  331.  332;  forests,  329; 
government,  327,  406;  imports,  332; 
manufactures, 331 ;  minerals, 330;  popu- 
lation, 35,  56,  450;    sea  routes  to,  6,  13. 

India  ink,  315. 

Indianapolis,  27,  159. 

Indian  Ocean,  337;  islands  of,  359. 

Indigo,  Bengal,  324;  India,  329;  Java,  324; 
Salvador,  256;    Sudan,  352;    U.  S.,  105. 

Indo-China,  326,  327,  397;  commerce  and 
products,  312,  326,  327;  French,  225, 
326. 

Indus  River,  331,  332. 

Industrial  Education,  48;  Germany,  48, 
418,451;    Netherlands,  416. 

Industries,  complementary,  53,  54;  locali- 
zation of,  50;   see  also  specific  industries. 

Industry,  and  commerce,  factors  in  natural 
control  of,  15;  and  poverty,  53,  136,  219, 
262,  306,  316,  441,  443,  445,  446,  447; 
primitive  woman  in,  64. 

International  Commission,  369. 

International  Date  Line,  46. 

International  Postal  Union,  61. 

Iodine,  284. 

Iquique,  287. 

Iquitos,  277. 

Iranian   Plateau,   332-334,   338;    exports, 

332,  333;  products,  332-334;  trade 
routes.  334. 

Irawadi  River,  331,  332. 

Ireland,  363,  405;  postal  rates,  61;  prod- 
ucts, 399,  401,  402;  railways,  404;  sur- 
face, 398;   see  also  Great  Britain. 

Iron,  93,  94,  96,  448;  ore,  modern  method 
of  handling  (Figs.  100,  101),  162,  163; 
Africa,  351 .356;  Alabama  (Fig.  92),  14s, 
148:  Australia,  296,  297;  Austria, 
383:  Belgium,  414;  Blue  Ridge  [U.  S.|, 
142;  Canada,  247,  249;  China,  315;  Cho- 
sen, 308;  Colorado,  185;  Cuba,  237;  Fin- 
land, 433;  France,  163,  393,  447;  Ger- 
many, 421,  423,  447;  Great  Britain,  163, 
400,  447;  Greece,  365;  Iberian  Peninsula, 
378;  Italy,  373;  Japan,  304;  Luxemburg, 
429;  Mexico,  258;  Newfoundland,  253; 
New  York,  122;  Philippines,  226; 
Russia,  433,  447;  S.  America,  275,  283, 
284;  Spain,  447;  Superior  ranges.  Lake, 
121,  161,  163,  map  (Fig.  99I,  161;  Swe- 
den, 12,  410,  411,  447;  Switzerland,  387; 
Tasmania,  296;  U.  S.,  116,  1 19,  121,  163, 
185,  204,  207,  208,  447;  and  coal  fields 
of  central  Europe,  map  (Fig.  268),  422; 
manufactures,  Austria,  383,  449;  Bel- 
gium, 449;  Canada,  44,  249;  China,  316; 
Germany,  423,  449;  Great  IBritain,  401, 
402,  403,  449;  France,  394.  4491  Japan, 
30s;  Russia,  434,  449;  Spain,  378;  Swe- 
den, 409,  449;  U.  S.,  120-122,  144,  14s, 
164,  189,  206,  448,  449;  industry  of  the 
world   (Fig.   282),  447. 

Iron  Gate,  369. 

Iroquois  trail,  107. 


THE    INDEX 


XXXIU 


Irrigation,  s.  72;  Africa,  345.  348,  35o; 
Canada.  247;  Egypt,  345.  34^;  India, 
328;  U.  S.,  177,  179;  Canal,  Truckee- 
Carson  (Fig.  109),  176;  flume,  old,  and 
new  •  redwood  stave  pipe  replacing  it 
(Fig.  34),  72;  hop  yard  on  Pacific  slope 
(Fig.  116),  183;  irrigated  lands  in  the 
West,  map  (Fig.  108),  175;  irrigating 
a  field,  California  (Fig.  no),  177. 

Isar  River,  424. 

Isinglass,  433- 

Iskanderun  Gulf,  343. 

Isker,  370. 

Isla  de  Piiios,  237- 

Isle  of  Man,  405. 

Ispahan,  m. 

Italy,  9.  12,  13,  371-376,  381,  389;  cities, 
rise  of,  11;  commerce,  375  (Fig.  245); 
crop  products,  371-373;  exports,  199, 
312,  375,  450;  forest  and  animal  prod- 
ucts, 371;    imports,  375;    manufactures, 

373.  450;  map  (Fig.  244),  372;  other 
resources,  203,  373,  382;  population,  363, 
371,  381,  450;  possession,  353,  376; 
sulphur,  143;  sea-going  tonnage,  454; 
transportation  routes  and  trade  centers, 

374.  375,  385- 

Ivory,  3i,  78;  Africa,  8,  351,  353.  41?; 
Ceylon,  331;  India,  331;  fossil,  in 
Russia,  431;    nuts  in  S.  America,  271. 

Jackson,  158. 
Jacksonville,  143. 
Jade,  2,  330. 
Jaffa,  340. 
Jamaica,  263,  264. 

James  River,  99. 
amestown,  115. 

Japan,  58,  222,  241,  250,  300-308;  climate 
and  surface,  301;  agricultural  products, 
302,  303,  312;  commerce,  307,  308,  and 
crops  (Fig.  207),  307;  exports,  303.  305. 
307,450;  fisheries,  301,  302;  forests,  24, 
302;  handicrafts,  304,  305;  human 
porterage  in,  64;  imports,  303,  307; 
mandate  over,  222,  292;  manufactures, 
305,306;  map  (Fig.  199),  300;  mineral 
resources,  203,  304;  population,  308,  320, 
450;  progress,  301;  seagoing  tonnage, 
454;  shipping  subsidies,  306;  steamship 
lines,  306;  swords,  305;  threshing  ma- 
chine (Fig.  204),  303;  transportation  and 
trade  centers  of,  306,  307;  Sea  of,  307. 

Jarvis  (Rowland)  Island,  221. 

Java,  324,  325,  337. 

Tedda,  337. 

Jeffersonville,  149. 

Jemappes,  414. 

Jerablus,  343. 

Jersey  City,  118,  126. 

Jewelry,  119,  259,  394,  424. 

Jibuti,  353. 

Jinrikishas,  306. 

Jobos,  233. 

Johannesburg,  91,  357;  market  place  at 
(Fig.  236),  355. 

Johnstown,  (N.  Y.),  117;   ,i3.|,  122. 

Joliet,  164. 

Joplin,  161. 

Jordan  River,  338,  340,  341. 

Jugo-Slavia,  381,  383,  385. 

Jujuy,  285. 

Juneau,  212,  213. 


Juniata  River,  107,  128. 

Jura  Mountains,  386,  388,  389. 

Jute,  35 ;  production  and  value,  90;  manu- 
facture (Fig.  225),  331;  in  Belgium, 
414;  France,  331,  394;  Germany,  331; 
Great  Britain,  331,  402;  India,  90,  329, 
331,  332;    U.  S.,  331. 

Kabul,  334,  343. 

Kalamata,  365,  366. 

Kalamazoo,  155. 

Kalgan,  318,  319. 

Kamchatka,  300. 

Kandahar,  334. 

Kankakee  River,  106. 

Kano,  353- 

Kansas  City  [Kan.],  159;    [Mo.],  27,  139, 

169. 
Kaolin,  424. 
Karachi,  332. 
Karlsbad,  383. 
Kashgar,  323. 
Katanga,  357. 
Kayes,  352,  354. 
Kazan,  434. 
Keel,  invention  of,  12. 
Kelung,  307. 
Kerman,  333. 
Kerosene,  96,  320. 
Key  West,  28,  133,  144.  Florida  East  Coast 

Railway   bridge  at    (Fig.  94),   148,   149, 

238. 
Khaibar  Pass,  334. 
Kharput,  341. 
Khartum,  349. 
Khiva,  436,  439. 
Khong,  327. 
Kiakhta,  323. 

Kiaochow,  323,  429;  Bay,  322. 
Kidderminster,  402. 

Kiel,  412,  423,  427;  Ship  Canal,  74,    405. 
Kiev,  432. 
Kimberley,  356. 
Kingston,  250;  Harbor,  264. 
Kishinev,  432. 
Kishon  River,  342. 
Kittanning  Path,  107. 
Klondike,  the,  247. 
Knoxville,  142,  144,  146,  147. 
Kobe,  306,  307. 
Konigsh'tte,  421. 
Kopias,  Lake,  365. 
Korea,  see  Chosen. 

Korean  oxen  and  sleds  (Fig.  208),  309. 
Kosel  River,  425. 
Kotlas,  437. 
Krefeld,  423. 
Krivoi  Rog,  434. 
Krupp  steel  works,  423;  bird's-eye  view  of 

(Fig.  269),  423. 
Kurdish  rugs,  341. 
Kustenji,  see  Constanza. 
Kutais,  433. 
Kyoto,  304,  305- 

Labor,  beginning  of  division  of,  2;  geo- 
graphic division  of,  39,  49,  50,  55,  57.  59. 
70,  440;  maximum  returns  from,  53; 
scarcity  of,  219;  skilled,  iig. 

Labrador,  253;  current,  109.  no,  253. 

Lace,  Belgium,  414;  F"rance,  394;  Great 
Britain,  402;  Mexico,  259. 


XXXIV 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Lacquered  and  enameled  goods  in  Japan, 

305. 

Lacquer  tree,  302. 

La  Crosse,  157. 

La  Dorado,  278. 

La  Guaira,  278. 

Laings  Nek,  357. 

Lakes,  Great,  106,  108,  109,  no,  114,  129, 
151.  I5S,  157,  165.  167. 

Lambskins,  332. 

Lancaster,  115. 

Land  routes,  the  crossing  of,  27. 

Language,  influence  of,  42. 

Languages  of  commerce,  42  (Fig.  229), 
facing  344- 

Laos,  326. 

La  Paz,  260,  269,  276,  277,  285. 

La  Plata  River,  268,  277,  284,  286. 

Lard,  158. 

Larissa,  365. 

La  Rochelle  (La  Pallice),  396. 

Las  Palmas,  359. 

Latakia,  340^ 

Latin,  nations,   363;    tongue,   364. 

Latvia,  431,  437- 

Launceston,  297,  298. 

La  Union,  261. 

Laurentian  Highland,  249,  268. 

Laurion,  365. 

Lawrence,  117. 

Lead,  95;  Africa,  356;  Australia,  203,  296; 
Austria,  383;  Belgium,  414;  British  Co- 
lumbia, 248;  China,  315;  France,  393; 
Germany,  203,  421;  Great  Britain,  403; 
Greece,  365;  Iowa,  161;  Idaho,  185; 
Italy,  373;  Japan,  304;  Mexico,  203, 
258;  Missouri,  r6i;  Spain,  7,  203,  378; 
Sweden,  409;  U.  S.,  203,  204;  Virginia, 
142,  Wales,  400. 

Leadville,  185. 

Leather,  and  animal  fibers,  81,  83;  goods, 
Austria,  383;  France,  394;  Germany, 
424;  Mexico,  259;  Russia,  433;  Spain, 
378;  S.  America,  284;  Turkey,  368;  U. 
S.,  124,  143,  160,  190. 

Lebanon  Mountains,  335,  337,  340,  342. 

Le  Creusot,  393,  394,  414. 

Leeds,  403. 

Leghorn,  374. 

Le  Havre,  28,  394,  395,  396. 

Lehigh  Valley,  123. 

Leipsig,  10,  424,  427. 

Lemberg,  383. 

Lemons,  36;  Cuba,  237;  Italy,  372;  Jaffa, 
340;  U.  S.,  183. 

Leon,  259. 

Lerdo,  257. 

Lethbridge,  248. 

Leukos  Limen  (Kosseir),  8. 

Levant,  the,  10,  370. 

"Leviathan",  the  (Fig.  36),  76. 

Lewiston   [Idaho],    191;   [Me.],    117. 

Lexington,  131,  134. 

Liau-ho,  320. 

Liautung,  319. 

Liberia,  353. 

Libya,  349-350,  376. 

Licorice,  330,  371. 

Liechtenstein,  362,  385,  429. 

Liege,  414,  415. 

Life  zones  in  N.  A.,  map  (Fig.  78),  131. 

Light,  causes  affecting,  30,  31. 

Lille,  394- 


Lily  bulbs,  in  the  Bermudas,  263. 

Lima,  277,  279. 

Lima  beans,  181. 

Limes,  264. 

Limestone,  122,  145,  249,  356,  447. 

Limoges,  394. 

Limon,  260. 

Linares,  378. 

Linen  manufacture,  Austria-Hungary, 
383;  Belgium,  414;  Czecho-Slovakia,  383; 
Egypt,  8;  France,  394;  Germany,  423, 
424;  Great  Britain,  402;  Russia,  434. 

Lingah,  334- 

Lingua  Franca,  42. 

Linseed,  329;  oil,  155. 

Lisbon,  12,  378,  379,  396. 

Litani  (Leontes)  Valley,  342. 

Lithographic  stone,  422. 

Little  Rock,  143. 

Liverpool,  241,  250,  4.02,  404;  rank  as  sea- 
port, 453. 

Live  stock,  133,  134,  199,  200,  202;  in  1907 
(Fig.  39),  81;  see  also  Stock  industry. 

Llamas,  65,  270,  277;  in  Peru,  waiting  for 
their  load  (Fig.  188),  276. 

Llanos,  34,  268,  270. 

Lobito  Bay,  357. 

Lobsters,  79,  iii,  198,  24s,  378. 

Locomotives,  122;  fifteen  years'  develop- 
ment in  (Pig.  31),  69. 

Lodz,  434. 

Loetschberg  Tunnel,  389. 

Logrono,  379. 

Logwood,  256,  264. 

Loire  River,  394. 

Lombok,  291. 

London  [Can.],  248;  [Eng.],  27,  38,  47,  80, 
198,  241,  250,  295,  357.  375,  404,  405, 
415,  426,  437  •.  rank  as  seaport,  453. 

Londonderry,  402. 

Long  Island,  126;  Sound,  112. 

Lorain,  164. 

Los  Angeles,  171,  189,  193. 

Louisville,  27,  144,  146,  149,  169. 

Lourenfo  Marques,  357. 

Low  Countries,  412-417;  colonies,  416- 
417;  commerce,  415,  416;  manufactures, 
414;  natural  resources,  413,  414;  trade 
routes  and  centers,  414,  415. 

Lowell,  117. 

Lowlands,  affect  transportation  and  com- 
merce, how,  18;  principal  source  of 
world's  food  supply,  17. 

Lubeck,  12,  418,  426,  427. 

Ludwig  Canal,  426. 

Ludwigshafen,  424. 

Lumber  and  lumber  mfg.:  Austria, 
Hungary,  383;  Canada,  199;  Norway, 
410;  Roumania,  369;  Russia,  433; 
Sweden,  410;  U.  S.,  112,  133,  143,  153, 
157,  190  (Fig.  132),  198,  206. 

Luxemburg,  362,  429. 

Lynn,  116,  117,  160;  Canal,  214. 

Lyons,  374,  394,  423. 

Lys  River,  413,  414. 

Macadam,  67. 

Macao  Island,  321. 

Macaroni,  373. 

"Macchie,"  371. 

Machinery,  American,  in   Turkey-in-Asia, 

340;     relative     export     of     (Fig.     285), 

449. 


THE  INDEX 


XXXV 


Mackenzie  River,  248,  249. 

Mackerel,  79,  iii,  198,  245,  399. 

Mackintosh's  invention,  84. 

Madagascar,  359,  397- 

Madeira  Islands,  358,  359,  378;  River,  278. 

Madras,  331. 

Madrid,  379,  396. 

Magdalena  River,  278;  Bay,  242. 

Magdeburg,  420. 

Magellan,  Strait  of,  241,  281,  287. 

Magnesite,  365. 

Maguey,  226. 

Mahogany,  33.  84,  235,  256. 

Mail,  pieces  of,  handled  yearly  per  capita 
(Fig.  290),  453;  pneumatic  tubes  used 
for  transporting,  72;  rates  for  carry- 
ing, 7  7- 

Maize,  see  Corn. 

Malacca,  Strait  of,  28. 

Malaga,  377-379- 

Malaysia,  296,  324-326;  agricultural 
products,  324,  325;  commerce,  325,  326; 
exports,   325,   326;   imports,   326. 

Malta,  380,  405. 

Manahiki  Islands,  221,  298. 

Manaos,  279. 

Manchester  [Eng.],  74,  402,  404,  405; 
Ship  Canal,  404;  [N.  H.],  117. 

Manchuria,  309,  312,  314.  3iS.  317-320, 
323.  439. 

Mandalay,  331. 

Mangabeira,  272. 

Manganese,  93;  Brazil,  275,  330;  Cuba, 
149,  237;  Germany,  330;  Greece,  365; 
India,  330;  Japan,  304;  Russia,  330, 
433;  Transcaucasia,  433;  world's  pro- 
duction of  (Fig.  223),  330. 

Mango,  Ceylon,  329;  East  Indies,  8s; 
Florida,  142;  India,  329;  Philippines,  225. 

Mangrove  bark,  354. 

Manigoba  rubber,  272. 

Manila,  35,  90,  222,  223,  225,  227,  228, 
241,  307;  map  (Fig.   159),  228. 

Manioc,  Africa,  86;  S.  America,   86,   273. 

Mannheim,  424,  425. 

Mansfield,  421. 

Manufactures,  relation  of  mountains  to 
mining  and,  20,  21;  exports  of  (Fig. 
286),  450;  rank  of  nations  in,  448-451; 
in  Australasia,  296,  297;  Austria, 
Hungary,  383;  Belgium,  414;  Canada, 
248,  249;  China,  315,  316;  Cuba,  237; 
France,  393,  449;  Germany,  422,  449; 
Great  Britain,  401,  405,  449;  Iberian 
Peninsula,  378;  Italy,  373;  Japan,  305, 
306;  low  countries,  414;  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  259;  Porto  Rico,  237; 
Russia,  433,  434;  Switzerland,  388;  S. 
America,  276,  284;  U.  S,,  in,  115,  116, 
117,  118,  126.  143-145,  156,  157,  158, 
160,  164,  188-190,  204,  205  (Fig.  142), 
206;  exports,  449;  location  of,  156; 
mechanical  power  used  in  (Fig.  67), 
115;  water  power,  115;  value  (Fig.  140), 
205;  westward  migration  of  centers 
(Fig.  98),  157.    ' 

Manzanillo,  254,  260. 

Maple,  151,  198. 

Maracaibo,  278. 

Marble,  20;  Alaska,  213;  Italy,  373; 
Georgia,  142;  Greece,  365;  Vermont,  119. 

Margarine,  411,  416. 

Mariannes,  222,  292. 


Maritsa-Morava  Pass,  368. 

Maritsa  Valley,  367-369. 

Markets,  origin  of,  i;  connection  between, 
and  religious  sanctuaries,  i,  2;  foreign, 
for  manufactures  necessary,  205,  206; 
where    they    may    be    found,    206,    207. 

Marlborough  [Mass.J,  117. 

Marquette,  163. 

Marseilles,  8,  374.  389,  394.  395.  396,  426; 
part  of  water  front  in  port  of  (Fig. 
254).  395- 

Marshall  Islands,  292. 

Marten  fur,  Canada,  245;  Russia,  431. 

Martinique,  236,  266. 

Maskat,  337. 

Massawa,  353,  376. 

Mastic,  339. 

Matanuska,  213. 

Matches,  Japan,  305;  Sweden,  305,  409. 

Mate,  282. 

Matting,  China,  316;  Japan,  305. 

Mauritius,  359. 

Mayaguez,  231. 

Maximum  returns,  from  capital,  52,  53; 
labor,  53;  land,  51,  52;  the  principle 
of,  40,  51. 

Mazatlan,  260. 

Meaford,  250. 

Meat,  59;  products,  81;  U.  S.  export, 
200;  packing,  114,  158,  159,  189;  by- 
products, 158. 

Mecca,  2,  337,  342. 

Medina,  337. 

Mediterranean  Age  of  Commerce,  7-14. 

Mediterranean,  American,  234. 

Mediterranean  Peninsulas,  Other,  371-380. 

Mediterranean  region,  climate  of,  360,  364. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  5-10,  12,  13,  36,  335, 
360,  379,  426. 

Mediterranean  stage  of  civilization,  5. 

Meissen,  424. 

Mekong  River,  327. 

Melbourne,  2c  6,  207,  298. 

Memel  River,  434. 

Memphis,  [Tenn.j,  27,  133,  144,  149,  2S0; 
iEgypt],  349. 

Menado,  222,  293. 

Menam  River,  327. 

Mendoza,  282,  283. 

Menhaden,  in. 

Menominee,  163. 

Mentasta  Pass,  216. 

Merchant  Marine,  tonnage  of,  showing 
relative  importance  of  ocean  shipping 
(Fig.  261),  410. 

Mercury,  Austria-Hungary,  203;  Iberian 
Peninsula,  378;  Jugo-Slavia,  383;  Italy, 
203;  Russia,  203;  Spain,  203,  378;  U.  S., 
143,  185.  203,  204. 

Meriden,  119. 

Merino,  83. 

Mersey  River,  404. 

Merv,  436. 

Merwede  Canal,  415. 

Mesabi,  163. 

Mescal,  257. 

Meshed,  m. 

Mesopotamia,  s,  6,  8,  92,  335,  338,  340, 
361;  commercial  centers,  342;  desola- 
tion of,  6,  340;  map  (Fig.  228),  338; 
meeting  place  of  East  and  West,  6;  prod- 
ucts, 340,  341;  road  building  first  begun 
in,  67. 


XXXVl 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Messengers,  communication  by,  59,  60. 

Messina,  375. 

Mesta  River,  367. 

Metallic  products  of  the  West  [U.  S.].  183, 
185,  186. 

Metals,  industries,  7,  11,  305;  precious,  95. 

Metric  system  of  weights  and  measures, 
xiii. 

Meuse  River,  404,  412. 

Mexico,  climate,  254,  255;  commerce,  261, 
262;  (Fig.  178),  261;  exports,  90,  261, 
262;  handiwork,  259;  imports,  261,  262; 
map  (Fig.  182),  facing  269;  manufac- 
tures, 259;  minerals,  203,  258;  physical 
features,  254,  255;  population  (Fig. 
178),  261;  postal  rates,  61;  products, 
256-258,  272,  273;  profile  view  of  (Fig. 
17s).  255;  transportation,  66,  240,  261; 
City  of,  255;  Gulf  of,  100,  108. 

Miami,  142;  River,  106. 

Mica,  Canada,  248;  Ceylon  and  India,  330; 
U.  S.,  142. 

Michigan,  Lake,  158,  164. 

Michipicoten,  163. 

Middle  America,  see  Central  America. 

Middlesbrough,  400,  402. 

Midland,  250. 

Midland  Canal  System,  425,  426. 

Midway  Island,  222. 

Milan,  27,  373.  374.  395,  396. 

Military  highways,  9;  naval  and  com- 
mercial sites,  typical,  28. 

Milk,  114;  condensed,  387,  409;  see  also 
Dairy  products. 

Millet,  in  Africa,  87;  China  and  Manchuria, 
314;  Egypt,  346;  India,  87;  Sud^n,  352. 

Milo,  179. 

Milwaukee,  160,  164,  168. 

Minerals,  447,  448;  mfluence  of,  90,  91; 
world's  production  of  (Fig.  138),  203;  in 
Africa,  351;  Alaska,  211,  212,  213,  447; 
Austria,  383;  Belgium,  414;  Bulgaria, 
367;  Canada,  247,  248  (Fig.  173),  247; 
Chinese  Republic,  315,  447;  France,  393; 
Germany,  421,  422,  448;  Great  Britain, 
400,  401,  402,  403,  448;  Greece,  365; 
Iberian  Penmsula,  378;  Japan,  304,  307; 
Philippines,  225;  Russia,  433;  Serbia, 
369;  Spain,  379;  S.  America,  275,  283; 
Turkey,  341;  U.  S..  118,  119,  122,  123, 
142,  165,  r86-i88,  199,  202-204,  448; 
location  of  metallic  deposits  in  the  West, 
map  (Fig.  119),  1H6;  value  per  square 
mile,  map  (Fig. 137^,  202;  mineral  indus- 
try of  U.  S.  (Fig.  139),  204;  mineral  ler- 
tilizers,  92,  93;  fuels,  95,  119,  120,  160. 

Minneapolis,  157,  150,  169,  247,  252. 

Mississippi  River,  100,  108,  130,  149,  151, 
164,  165,  166,  169,  170,  179,  268,  312; 
an  artery  of  commerce,  147;  system, 
canals  of,  166. 

Missouri  River,  73,  108,  165,  166,  169,  172. 

Mobile,  28,  143,  148. 

Mohair,  Africa,  358;  Turkey,  339. 

Mohammera,  334. 

Mohawk  Gap,  108,  129;  River,  100,  106, 
1 18,  124. 

Molasses,  88,  90. 

Moldau  River,  384. 

Mole,  St.  Nicolas,  265. 

Moline,  137,  158. 

MoUendo,  277. 

Mombasa,  354. 


Monaco,  362,  397. 

Monastir,  367. 

Monazite,  275. 

Moncton,  250,  251. 

Money,  46,  47;  gold  standard,  47. 

Mongolia,  311,  314,  317,  319,  323. 

Mons,  414. 

Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  389,  395. 

Montenegro,  367. 

Monterrey,  259. 

Montevideo,  286. 

Montgomery,  143. 

Montreal,  27,  125,  169,  249,  250,  251,  279. 

Montserrat,  264. 

Morava  River,  384;  valley,  369. 

Moravia  (Czecho-  Slovakia),  383. 

Moresnet,  414. 

Morocco,  349,  350,  35 1. 

Mortar,  123. 

Moscow,  434.  435- 

Moselle  River,  423. 

Mosul,  342,  343. 

Mound  Builders,  142. 

Mountains,  affect  agriculture  and  trans- 
portation, 20.;  climate,  21;  profile  sketch 
showing  relation  of,  to  rainfall  in  Utah 
(Fig.  7),  2i;  relation  of,  to  mining  and 
manufactures,  20. 

Moving-picture  films,  190. 

Mulberry,  Japan.  302,  307;  Russia,  433. 

Mules,  Iberian  Peninsula,  377;  S.  America, 
277;  U.  S.,  134,  172,  199. 

Miinchen-Gladbach,  423. 

Muncie,  165. 

Munich,  374,  424,  426. 

Murex,  7. 

Murray  River,  297. 

Mushrooms,  392. 

Musk,  315. 

Muskegon,  157. 

Muskingum  River,  106,  167. 

Mustard,  88. 

Mutton,  416. 

Myrobalans,  329. 

Myrrh,  8,  336. 

Mysore,  330. 

Nagasaki,  305,  307. 

Nagoya,  305. 

Nanaimo,  248. 

Nancy,  394. 

Nanking,  315,  318. 

Nankou  Pass,  319. 

Nantes,  393,  396. 

Naples,  372,  374,  375. 

Narbonne,  391. 

Narva,  434. 

Narvik,  411. 

Nashua,  119. 

Nashville,  131,  144. 

Nassau,  263. 

Natal,  356. 

Nationality,  influence  of.  42,  43. 

National  Road,  107,  108 

Nature,  what  man  owes  to,  15. 

Naval  sites,  28;  bee  also  Coaling  and  naval 

stations. 
Navigation,  how  forests  affect,  22:  inland, 

72>    73;    effect    of    railways    upon,    73: 

ocean,  74.  75- 
Naxos,  365. 
Negros,  225.  226. 
Nejd,  336,  352. 


THE    INDEX 


Nemacolins  Path,  107. 

Nepal,  327- 

Netherlands,  26,  44,  412,  413;  canals,  415; 
colonies,  416,  417;  commerce,  415,  416, 
(Fig.  264),  416;  exports,  416;  fishing, 
413;  imports,  416;  map  (Fig.  263),  412; 
manufactures,  414;  population,  450, 
451;  occupations  of  people,  451;  rail- 
way mileage,  452;  trade  routes  and 
centers,  414.  415. 

Neva  River,  434.  435- 

New  Almaden.  185. 

Newark,  116,  118,  126. 

New  Bedford,  117,  175. 

New  Britain,  119. 

New  Brunswick,  243,  245. 

New  Caledonia,  292,  293. 

Newcastle  (N.  S.  W.],  296,  297,  298; 
|Pa.),  122. 

Newcastle-on-Tyne,  403. 

Newchwang  (Xiuchwang),  314,  320. 

Newfoundland,  61,  253,  405. 

New  Guinea,  291,  292,  293,  298. 

New  Haven  [Conn.],  119;  Newhaven, 
|Eng.!,  405. 

New  London,  119. 

New  Orleans,  27,  131,  133,  143,  146,  148, 
149,  166,  194,  260,  280;  Harbor  (Fig. 
93),  147. 

Newport,  144. 

Newport  News,  133,  146. 

New  York,  Bay,  126;  City,  27,  117,  118, 
119,  123,  124,  125,  126,  127,  128,  129, 
146,  171,  241,  250,  251,  260,  263,  264, 
277,  289,  404;  rank  as  seaport,  453; 
Harbor,  126;  map  (Fig.  76),  126; -sub- 
ways and  tunnels  (Fig.  77),  127. 

New  Zealand,  80,  250,  291,  293,  297,  405; 
colonies,  220,  298;  commercial  centers, 
298;  products,  295,  296. 

Niagara,  122;  Falls,  long  distance  trans- 
mission of  electric  power  from  (Fig. 
68),  116;  water  power  at  (Fig.  69),  117; 
River,  115. 

Nicaragua,  254,  256,  258,  269. 

Nice,  390,  392. 

Nickel,  247,  293. 

Nigeria,  353. 

Niger  River,  352,  354. 

Nikolaiev,  437. 

Nile  River,  5,  8,  18,  346,  349.  352,  354,  412. 

Nineveh,  6,  342. 

Ninghai,  320. 

Nish,  369. 

Nishapur,  333.  • 

Nisibin,  343. 

Nitrate   industry,   54,   92,   283,   284,   287. 

Nitrogen,  92,  93. 

Nizhniy  Novgorod,  10. 

Nome,  212,  214,  215,  216. 

Norfolk,  140,  146. 

Norristown,  1 18. 

Norrkoping,  409. 

North  America,  36,  98-102;  climate,  loi, 
102;  coast  line  and  surface,  98;  life  zones 
in,  map  (Fig.  78),  131;  map  (Fig.  53) 
between  98,  99;  rainfall,  102;  position, 
98. 

North  Sea,  360,  363,  384,  415,  421,  427; 
Canal,  415. 

North  Sea  Nations,  Lesser,  407-417. 

Norway,  25,  87,  407;  exports,  410;  fishing 
industry,    408;    map    (Fig.    258),    408; 


sea-going  tonnage  (Fig.  292),  454;  ton- 
nage of  merchant  marine  (Fig.  261), 
410;  wood  and  wood-pulp  exports,  409; 
see  also  Scandinavian  Peninsula. 

Nottingham,  402. 

Nova  Scotia,  24s,  247,  248,  252. 

Numea   293. 

Nuremberg,  13,  424. 

Nushki,  334. 

Nutmegs,  88;  Ceylon  and  India,  330; 
Grenada,  264;  Philippines,  226. 

Nutria,  fur  of,  83. 

Nuts,  85,  86,  183,  333,  354. 

Oak,  Greece,  364;  Japan,  302;  Philippines, 
223;  Roumania,  381;  Turkey,  339; 
U.  S.,  116,  133,  151,  198. 

Oakland,  igo. 

Oats,  87,  88;  Australia,  299;  Austria- 
Hungary,  87,  382;  Canada,  247;  France, 
87,  392;  Germany,  87,  420;  Great 
Britain,  87,  399;  New  Zealand,  296; 
Russia,  87,  431;  Scandinavian  Penin- 
sula, 409;  Tasmania,  296;  U.  S.,  87, 
113,  140,  154;    world  crop  (Fig.  43),  87. 

Ob',  431,  435;  -Yenisei  Canal,  435. 

Obok,  353. 

Occupations  of  people  (Fig.  288),  451. 

Ocean,  commerce,  paths  of,  28;  currents, 
distribution  of,  map  (.Fig.  216),  37; 
"greyhounds,"  75;  subdued  to  man's 
use,  76;  routes,  termini  of,  26,  27;  world, 
291. 

Oceania  and  Australasia,  291-299;  com- 
merce, 292,  293;  islands  of  coral  and 
volcanic  formation,  291;  map  (Fig.  195), 
between  290,   291;  partition  of,  292. 

Oceanic  age  of  commerce,  13,  14. 

Oceanic  stage  of  civilization,  5. 

Oder  River,  423,  425,  426,  427. 

Odessa,  426,  437. 

Office,  interior  of    a  general   (Fig.   s),   14. 

Ohio  River,  17,  106,  108,  118,  121,  125, 
126,  129,  130,  149,  165,  166,  167;  falls 
of  the,  107,  149;  fleet  of  barges  carry- 
ing coal  down  the  (Fig.  102).  166. 

Oil,  Africa,  356;  California,  188;  Indiana, 
160;  Mesopotamia.  341;  Ohio,  160; 
Roumania,  369;  Baku,  439;  Trinidad, 
264;  U.  S.  (Fig.  71)  121;  transporting, 
cost  of,  72;  wells  and  derricks  in  Bakers- 
ville  district  [Calif.]  (Fig.  121),  i88; 
Seeds,  Africa,  354;  Belgium,  413;  France, 
392,  394;  India,  329,  332. 

Oil  City,  120. 

Olean,  120. 

Oleomargarine,  53,  80,  158;  Denmark,  80 
Germany,  80;  Great  Britain,  80;  Nether 
lands,  80;  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  409 
U.  S.,  80. 

Olive  oil,  55 ;  France,  396;  Greece,  364 
Italy,  372,  375. 

Olives,  36,  85;  Australia,  295;  France,  392 
Greece,  364;  Haifa,  340;  Iberian  Penin- 
sula, 377;  Russia,  433;  Tunis,  351;  U.  S., 
183. 

Olympia  [Greece],   2;   [Wash.],   195. 

Omaha,  169. 

Oman,  336. 

Oneida  Carrying  Place,  106. 

Onions,  87,  114,  263,  377. 

Ontario,  Lake,  115,  127,  249,  251 

Onyx,  258. 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Opals,  258. 

Open-hearth,  steel,  145. 

Opium,  Asia,  89;  Ceylon,  330;  China,  320, 

322;   India,   330,   332;   Iranian   Plateau, 

333;   Smyrna,    340;    Turkey,    340,    368; 

poppies,  313. 
Oporto,  379. 
Oran,  351- 
Orange,  118. 
Orange  Free  State,  357. 
Oranges,   36,    85;   Australia,    295;    China, 

313;   Cuba,   237;   Florida,    142;   Greece, 

36s;  Iberian  Peninsula,  378;  Italy,  372; 

Jaffa,   340;   Jamaica,    264;   Japan,   303; 

Paraguay,  282;  Porto  Rico,  232;  U.  S., 

183. 
Orchilla  (litmus),  358. 
Oregon  City,  190. 
Orenburg,  436. 

Orinoco  River,  264,  270,  277,  278. 
Orontes,  6,  8,  339,  342. 
Oroya,  277. 
Oruro,  275. 
Oshkosh,  157- 
Ostend,  415. 
Ostrich  farming,   174,  356;  feathers,  351, 

352,  358. 
Oswego,  114,  115;  Canal,  127;  River,  106. 
Ottawa  River,  245.  249,  251. 
Overland  trails,  the  first,  106,  107. 
Owen  Sound,  250. 

Ox  teams,  Australia  (Fig.  197),  295. 
Oysters,  79,  112,  114,  133,  198,  393. 
Ozaka,  306. 
Ozarks,  100,  130,  140. 
Ozokerite,  187. 

Pacific  ports,  comparative  distances  from 
Hamburg  and  New  York  to,  before 
and  after  opening  of  Panama  Canal 
(Fig.  169),  241. 

Pack  animals,  65. 

Pago  Pago,  221;  Harbor  (Fig.  11),  25; 
(Fig.  24).  58. 

Paita,  293. 

Palermo,  375. 

Palestine,  339. 

Palmerston  Island,  298. 

Palmetto  roots,  144. 

Palm  oil,  354. 

Palmyra,  6. 

Panama,  234,  254,  298,  299;  Republic  of, 
239,240;  postal  rates,  61;  relation  of,  to 
U.  S.,  238,  239;  Bay  of,  239;  Canal,  28, 
73,  74,  149,  167,  194,  220,  221,  240-242, 
260,  264,  267,  285,  292,  437;  effect  of 
(Fig.  169),  241,  290;  excavated  to  grade 
at  Matachin  (Fig.  168),  240;  plans  for 
safety  of,  242;  Canal  Zone,  9,  see  Pana- 
ma Canal;  Harbor  of,  at  low  tide  (Fig. 
170),  242;    hats,  232,  276. 

Panama  Canal,  220,  map  (Fig.  167), 
238;    effect  of  (Fig.  169),  241,  267. 

Pan-American  Railway,  277,  285,  290,  357. 

Paper  manufacturing,  Canada,  249;  China, 
316;  France,  394;  (.iermany,  424;  Greece, 
M'5\  Japan,  305;  Kelherlands,  414; 
Spain,  378;  Scandinavian  Peninsula, 
409;    U.  S.,  112,  113,  157,  206. 

Para  (BcU-ni).  279;  chestnuts,  271; 
ruhhcr,  272. 

Paraffin,  96. 

Paraguay,  281,  282,  285-2S7;    River,  285. 


Paris,  318,  370,  373.  379,  389,  390.  395. 
396,  426,  437;    manufactures,  394. 

Parmesan  cheese,  80,  371. 

Paros,  365. 

Pasig  River,  228. 

Passaic,  118;  River,  118. 

Passau,  422. 

Pasto,  269. 

Paterson,  118. 

Patras,  365. 

Pauillac,  396. 

Pawtucket,  117. 

Payta,  275.  277. 

Peabody,  116. 

Peace  River  Valley,  246. 

Peace  Treaty,  292. 

Peaches,  86,  140,  183. 

Peanut  butter,  142. 

Peanuts,  140. 

Pearl  Harbor,  220;  map  (Fig.  152),  220. 

"Pearl  of  the  Antilles,"  235. 

Pearls,  8,  79;  Australia,  294;  Bahrein 
Islands,  337;  California,  Gulf  of,  258; 
Ceylon,  328;  Malaysia,  325;  Nicoya 
Bay,  258;  Oceania,  292;  Panama,  Bay 
of,  239;  Persian  Gulf,  333;  S.  America, 
27s;'  Sulu  Sea,  224. 

Pears,  86,  247,  392. 

Peat,  16,  401,  409. 

Pecans,  85,  142. 

Pei-ho,  317. 

Peking,  11,  317,  3i8,  319,  437- 

Peloponnesus  (Morea),  365. 

Pemba,  354- 

Pennine  Range,  401,  402. 

Penobscot  River,  112. 

Pensacola,  148. 

Peons,  41. 

Peoria,  158,  160. 

Pepper,  88,  89;  America,  88;  Ceylon  and 
India,  330;  Philippines,  226;  Siam,  326; 
Sumatra,  324. 

Peppermint,  155. 

Perche,  379. 

Perfumes,  392. 

Pernambuco,  272,  274,  279. 

Persia,  6,  8,  38,  331-335,  343. 

Persian  Fire  Worshipers,  95. 

Persian  Gulf,  334.  335.  343.  427. 

Persian  traders,  with  pack  camels  (Fig. 
227),  333. 

Persimmons,  303. 

Perth,  297,  298. 

Perthus,  379. 

Peru,  86,  241,  272,  274-277,  283,  290. 

Petersburg,  144. 

Petrograd  (St.  Petersburg).  396,  411.  426, 
431,  434.  435.  437- 

Petroleum,  55,  95,  143;  Apennmes,  373: 
Poland,  383;  Burma,  330;  California, 
187;  Illinois,  160;  Indiana,  160;  Japan, 
304;  Kansas,  160;  Malaysia.  325;  Me.x- 
ico,  258;  Ohio,  160;  Ontario,  248;  Pana- 
ma, 240;  Roumania,  369;  Russia,  95. 
203,  433,  435;  S.  America,  275,  283; 
U.  S.,  95,  120,  203,  204,  207;  oil  and 
gas  fields  of  U.  S.,  121;  industrial  prod- 
ucts of,  (Fig.  49),  96. 

Pforzheim,  424,  426. 

Philadelphia,  27,  116,  1 18-120,  122,  125, 
128,  146;  bird's-eye  view  of  Reading 
Terminals  at  (Fig.  12),  26. 

Philippines,   35.    194.    223-228,   300,   324; 


THE  INDEX 


XXXIX 


agricultural  and  mineral  products,  225, 
226,  227,  228;  banks  and  money  in,  227; 
commerce,  226-228  (Fig.  158),  227; 
exports,  227;  fisheries  and  forests  of, 
224,  225;  inhabitants,  224;  map  (Fig. 
196),  facing  291;  postal  service  in,  227; 
rice  terraces  in  (Fig.  155),  223;  seaports, 
228;   tariff,  228. 

Philistia,  340. 

Phoenicia,  335. 

Phoenicians,  2,  6,  7,  43. 

Phormium,  296. 

Phosphate,  55;  Africa,  351;  Florida,  149; 
France,  393;  Oceania,  292,  293;  U.  S., 
142,  143,  204;  phosphate-rock  produc- 
tion of  the  world  (Fig.  89),  142. 

Phosphorus,  93. 

Piassava,  271. 

"Pidgin"  English,  42. 

Piedmont  region,  99,  1307132. 

Pig  iron,  annual  production  of,  per  crpita 
(Fig.  284),  449;  modern  method  of 
handling  (Fig.  48),  94;  totals  in  1906 
(Fig.  282),  447. 

Pilchards,  399. 

Pilsen,  383. 

Pimento,  88. 

Pine,  84;  Canada,  245;  Chosen,  308; 
Manchuria,  312;  New  Zealand,  294; 
Philippines,  223;  S.  America,  281;  U.  S., 
112,  132,  133,  153.  174.  175,  198,  199- 

Pineapples,  Bahamas,  263;  Cuba,  237; 
Florida,  142;  Hawaii,  218;  Malaysia, 
32s;  Porto  Rico,  232;  fiber  (piiia),  226. 

Pinehurst,  142. 

Pipe  lines,  70,  72. 

Piraeus,  365. 

Pitch,  84,  133- 

Pittsburgh,  27,  119,  120,  121,  123,  125,  126, 
129,  164,  165,  167. 

Piura  Valley,  274. 

Plantain,  329. 

Plants,  cultivated,  85;  how  they  connect 
man  with  the  earLh,  83. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  123. 

Plated  ware,  119. 

Platinum,  433. 

Piatt  Amendment,  234,  238. 

Plow  horses  in  China,  Human  (Fig.  212), 
314- 

Plums,  86;  Germany,  421;  Japan,  303; 
Roumania,  369;   Serbia,  367;   U.  S.,  183. 

Plymouth,  400,  405. 

Pod  crops,  86,  87. 

Pola,  28. 

Poland,  381,  383,  431,  433,  435,  439. 

Polenta,  372. 

Ponape  Island,  291. 

Ponce,  233. 

Pondichery,  332. 

Pongo  de  Manseriche,  277. 

Pontebba,  385. 

Poplar,  133  (Fig.  132),  198. 

Population,  U.  S.,  density  of,  per  square 
mile  (Fig.  58),  104;  distribution  of, 
illustrates  man's  control  by  nature,  104; 
westward  migration  of  centers  of  (Fig. 
98),  157;  growth  of,  in  principal  com- 
mercial countries  (Fig.  136),  201;  per 
square  mile,  of  principal  commercial 
countries  (Fig.  187),  450;  of  the  world, 
density  of,  map  (Fig.  13),  facing  28;  of 
principal    commercial    countries    of    the 


world,    xiv;     see   also   under   countries. 

Porcelain,  Austria,  383;  China,  315; 
Czecho-S!ovakia,383;  France, 394;  Great 
Britain,  403;  Japan,  305;  Russia,  434; 
U.  S.,  123. 

Po  River,  371,  372,  374- 

Portages,  historic,  106,  166. 

Port  Arthur,  [Can.],  250,  251;  [China],  314, 
318,  323. 

Port  Augusta,  298. 

Port  au  Prince,  265. 

Port  Curtis,  297. 

Port  Darwin,  297,  298. 

Port  Elizabeth,  357. 

Porterage,  Human,  64. 

Port  Huron,  169. 

Port  Hunter,  297. 

Port  Jackson,  297. 

Portland  [Can.],  250,  251;  [Me.],  124,  123, 
291;   [Ore.],  189,  190,  191.  193.  194.  195- 

Portland  cement,  92,  165    (Pig.  73),  123. 

Port  McNicoll,  250. 

Port  Mann,  250. 

Port  Nelson,  250. 

Porto  Alegre,  286. 

Porto  Rico,  229-234,  262,  263,  266,  267; 
climate  and  surface,  230,  231;  com- 
merce, 232-234  (Fig.  162),  232;  educa- 
tion, 230;  exports,  232;  manufactures, 
237;  map  (Fig.  160),  230;  military  road 
in  (Fig.  163),  233;  people  and  govern- 
ment, 229,  230;   products,  231,  232. 

Port  of  Spain,  264. 

Port  Phillip,  297. 

Port  Said,  241,  349. 

Port  Sudan,  349. 

Portugal,  67,  376-380;  commerce,  379, 
380;  crop  products,  377,  378;  exports, 
377.  378;  forest  and  animal  products, 
377;  manufactures,  378:  other  products, 
203,  378;  possessions,  321,  324,  332, 
355.  359.  379.  380. 

Post,  the,  60;    transportation  rates  for,  77. 

Postal  routes,  map    (Fig.   52),   facing  98. 

Potash  salts,  422. 

Potassium,  93. 

Potatoes,  88,  90,  218,  273;  Alaska,  214; 
America,  86;  Austria-Hungary,  88,  382; 
Belgium,  413;  Bermudas,  263;  Canada, 
246,  247;  Chile,  282;  £)enmark,  411; 
France,  88,  392;  Germany,  88,  420; 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  88,  399; 
Maine,  114;  Michigan,  155;  New  York, 
114,  155;  New  Zealand,  296;  Norway, 
87;  Peru,  86;  Philippines,  225;  Russia, 
88,  431;  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  409; 
S.  America,  273;  Tasmania,  296;  U.  S., 
88,  140,  181;  Wisconsin,  155;  world 
crop  (Fig.  44),  88. 

Poti,  435. 

Potomac  River,  20, 99, 108, 127,128, 130, 146. 

Potosi,  275. 

"Potteries,"  the,  403. 

Pottery,  92;  Belgium,  414;  Great  Britain, 
403;  Mexico,  259;  Netherlands,  414; 
Ohio,  165;  Russia,  434;  S.  America, 
276;   U.  S.,  123;   Delft,  414. 

Pottsville,  119. 

Poultry,  80,  Belgium,  4:3;  California, 
174;  China,  314;  Czecho-Slovakia,  381; 
France,  391;  Germany,  420;  Iberian 
Peninsula,  377;  Italy,  371;  U.  S.,  174, 
199. 


xl 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Prague,  383,  384. 

Pribilof  Islands,  210. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  245. 

Prince  of  Wales  Island,  212,  213. 

Prince  Rupert,  250,  252. 

Prince  William  Sound,  215. 

Proctor,  119. 

Providence,  iiS,  119. 

Prunes,  86,  183,  200,  367,  392. 

Prussia,  420. 

Puebla,  259. 

Puerto  Barrios,  260. 

Puerto  Cabello,  278. 

Puerto  Mexico  (Coatzacoalcos),  259. 

Puerto  Montt,  281,  285. 

Puerto  Plata,  265. 

Puget  Sound,  25,  loi,  175,  190,  194,  195, 

252. 
Pulp,  wood,  157;    exports  (Fig.  260),  409. 
Pulque,  257. 
Punjab,  332. 
Punta  Arenas,  261,  287. 
Pyramids,    and    an    electric    trolley    (Fig. 

233),  347- 
Pyrenees,  360,  363,  368,  379>  380,  390,  395. 

Quartz,  95,  212. 

Quebec,  125,  24s,  248,  249,  250,  251,  397. 

Quebracho,  281. 

Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  248. 

Queensland,  295,  298,  405. 

Quetta,  333,  334. 

Quincy,  1 19,  164. 

Quinine,  271,  414. 

Quinua,  273. 

Quito,  269,  277. 

Rabba,  354. 

Rabbits,  83;  Australia,  295;  Belgium,  413. 

Race,  influence  of,  40;  races  of  man,  map 
(Fig.  200),  facing  300. 

Racine,  158. 

Raffia,  359. 

Ragusa,  385. 

Railroad,  the,  6g,  70;  first  continental  in 
America,  239,  240;  transcontinental 
roads,  240;  railways  in  Africa,  354,  357; 
Arabia,  337;  Australasia,  297;  Austria- 
Hungary,  384;  Belgium,  414;  Canada, 
249,  250;  Central  America,  259-261; 
China,  317,  318;  Cuba,  237,  238; 
Danube  States,  370;  France,  39s;  Ger- 
many, 426;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
404;  Greece,  365;  India,  331;  Italy,  374; 
Japan,  306;  Malaysia,  325;  Philippines, 
227;  Russia,  435,  436;  S.  America,  277, 
285,  286;  Switzerland,  389;  Sudan,  352, 
353;  Turkey,  342,  343.368;  U.S.,  128,129, 
145,  146,  167-169,  191,  192;  density  of 
(Fig.  127),  facing  196;  railway  mileage 
per  1,000  square  miles  of  territory,  show- 
ing relative  density  of  railways  (Fig. 
289),  452;  railway  mileage  of  the  princi- 
pal countries  of  the  world,  xiv;  railway 
mileage  in  Austria-Hungary,  Belgium, 
Canada,  France,  Germany,  Great 
Britain,   Russia,   United   States,   xviii. 

Rainfall,  mean  annual,  and  prevailing 
winds  (Fig.  15),  facing  29;  in  U.  S., 
^Fig.  57),  103;  why  it  rains,  29,  30;  see 
also  Climate  under  countries. 

Rainy  River,  157. 

Raisin  grapes,  picking   (Fig.    iii),    178. 

Raisins,  85;     Australia,    295;     California, 


183,     296;      Iberian     Peninsula,     378; 

Smyrna,  340. 
Raleigh,  145. 
Ramie,  313. 

Rampart,  214. 

Rangoon,  330,  332. 

Rattan,   Malaysia,   325;     Philippines,   224. 

Raw  materials  of  commerce,  78-97. 

Reading,  122. 

Recife,  279. 

Reclamation  service,  177,  179;  first  work 
completed  by   (Fig.    109),    176. 

Red  River  Carts  (Fig.  29),  66. 

Red  River  Valley,  18,  150,  153. 

Red  Sea,  8,  338,  349,  352,  353. 

Redwood,  175,  193,  199. 

Reforestation  of  cut-over  land  in  U.  S. 
(Fig.  143),  208. 

Regensburg,  425. 

Reichenberg,  383. 

Reims,  394. 

Reindeer,  in  Alaska,  213;  freighting  with 
(Fig.  146),  213;  Russia,  431;  Scandi- 
navian Peninsula,  409. 

Religion,  influence  of,  40. 

Religious  festivals,  2. 

Resin,  84;  Africa,  334;  Arabia,  336,  337; 
Malaysia,  325;    Philippines,  224. 

Reunion,  359. 

Revel,  431,  437. 

Revolutions,  destructive  to  industry  and 
commerce,  255,  430. 

Rhine,  industrial  district,  S4.  423,  427; 
River,  374,  384,  385,  389,  394.  4^4.  412, 
41S,  421.  423.  424.  42s.  426,  427; 
-Rhone  Canal,  426;  -Seine  Canal,  426. 

Rhodes,  8. 

Rhodesia,  34,  355.  356,  357. 

Rhodope  Range,  367. 

Rhone  River,  3S9.  392.  394.  395.  396,  426. 

Rice,  35,  88,  433;  exports,  sources  of  (Fig. 
220),  326;  field  in  the  Philippines, 
plowing  with  caraboo  (Fig.  156),  225; 
market,  427;  terraces,  in  Philippines 
(Fig.  155),  223;  threshing  in  Louisiana 
(Fig.  87),  139;  water,  88;  A.sia,  87; 
Bulgaria,  367;  Burma.  329;  China,  312, 
313.  314.  320.  321;  Chosen.  308,  312; 
Egypt,  346;  Hawaii,  218;  India,  312, 
326,  332;  Indo-China,  225,  312,  326; 
Iranian  Plateau,  333;  Italy,  371;  Japan, 
301,  303.  307.  312;  Louisiana,  131.  I39, 
Malay  Peninsula,  326;  Philippines,  225, 
227,  228;  Porto  Rico,  231;  Siam,  326; 
S.  America,  273;  S.  Carolina,  139;  Texns. 
131.  139;  Turkey,  341;  Virginia,  10- 

Richmond,  144,  171. 

Rideau  Canal,  249. 

Riga,  431,  437- 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  273,  277,  279;  Harbor,  view 
of  (Fig.  189),  278. 

Rio  Grande,  149. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  270,  286. 

Rioja,  283. 

Rio  Tinto,  378. 

Rivers,  navigable,  73;  see  also  names  ot 
rivers. 

Road,  a  mud,  and  same  road  macadam- 
ized (Fig.  30),  68;  construction  of  roads, 
67. 

Roanoke,  144. 

Rochester,  114,  115,  117,  129. 

Rockford,  158. 


THE  INDEX 


xli 


Rockhampton,  296,  297. 

Rock  Island,  108,  157,  166. 

Rocky  Mountains,  30,  100,  loi,  107,  161, 
170,  174,  179,  192,  210,  248,  268. 

Roman,  Empire,  8,  9;  Roads,  67;,  Romans, 
8,  43. 

Rome,  7    28,  38,  371,  426;     N.  Y.,    106. 

Roncesvalles,  379. 

Root  and  pod  crops,  86,  87. 

Roquefort  cheese,  80. 

Rosario.  286. 

Rosewood,  84,  236. 

Rosin,  84,  133,  198,  199;  sources  of,  enter- 
ing international  commerce  (Fig.  79), 
132. 

Rossland  mines,  247. 

Rostov,  437. 

Rotterdam,  74,  404,  415;  rank  as  seaport, 
453- 

Roubaix,  394,  396. 

Rouen,  394,  396. 

Roumania,  364,  369,  370;  exports,  282,  369, 
381,  map  (Fig.  242),  362. 

Roumanians,  363,  364,  381. 

Royal  Gorge,  Grand  Canon  of  the  Arkansas 
(Fig.  6),  19. 

Rubber,  33,  84,  199,  446,  447;  Africa,  354. 
447;  Belgian  Congo,  272,  417;  Brazil, 
272,  447;  Central  America,  256;  Cey- 
lon, 330,  447;  East  Indies,  272;  Hawaii, 
218;  Madagascar,  ^59;  Malay  Peninsula, 
32s,  447;  Mexico,  238;  New  Guinea, 
293;  Philippines,  224;  S.  America,  271, 
272,  273,  287,  288;  industry,  84;  goods, 
118,  160,  424,  434;  tree,  tapping  a 
(Fig.  184),  271. 

Rubies,  95,  330. 

Rugs,  Persia,  333,  334;    Turkey,  341.  368. 

Ruhr,  coal  field,  S4,  423;   River,  421. 

Rushchuk,  370. 

Russia,  58,  88,  196,  363,  407.  427, 
430-439;  characteristics,  430;  climate, 
31,  360,  430,  431;  commerce,  438,  439; 
exports,  282,  409,  431,  433,  434,  438, 
439;  fairs,  438;  government,  430;  im- 
ports, 438,  439;  leather,  433;  manu- 
factures, 433,  434;  map  (Fig.  202), 
facing  301  ;  minerals,  203,  330,  433;  pop- 
ulation, 201  363  430,  450:  possessions, 
323.  334,  439;  resources,  other,  312, 
433;  sea-going  tonnage  (Fig.  292),  454; 
seaports  of,  437,  438;  sub-tropical,  432, 
433;  transportation,  land,  435,  436; 
rail  and  inland  water,  xix;  water  ways, 
434.  435;.  tundra  and  forest  belts,  431; 
uses  of  soil  and  commerce  of  (Fig.  275), 
438;  wheat  and  grasslands  of,  392,  432; 
zone  of  mixed  farming  in,  431,  432. 

Rutland,  1 19. 

Rye,  87,  88;  Austria-Hungary,  88,  382; 
Belgium,  413;  France,  392;  Germany,  88, 
420;  Japan,  303;  Russia,  88,  431;  U.  S., 
88,  113,  154;  world  crop  (Fig.  44),  88. 

Saba,  262,  267. 

Sabanilla,  278. 

Sabinas,  258,  259. 

Sable,  Canada,  245;  Russia,  431. 

Sacramento,   189,   191;  River,   loi. 

Saddlery,  i6o. 

Saffron,  378. 

Saginaw,  157. 

Sago,  86,  325. 


Saguenay  River,  245. 

Sahara,    29,    30,   35.   344.   350,    351.    352. 

Saigon,  327. 

Sailing  ship,  modern  steel,  74,  75;  (Fig. 
35).  7S;    wheelbarrows  (Fig.  155),  223. 

St.  Anthony,  falls  of,  159. 

St.  Clair  River,  250. 

Ste.  Croix,  242,  266  (Fig.  194). 

St.  Etienne,  394. 

St.  Gobain,  mirrors,  394. 

St.  Gothard  Tunnel,  389,  426. 

St.  Helens,  403. 

St.  John  [W.  Ind.],  242,  266;  [N.  B.],  125. 
249,  251;  St.  Johns  [Newf.],  253. 

St.  Joseph,  108,  159;  River,  106. 

St.  Lawrence  River,  99,  100,  106,  124,  125, 
127,  128,  24s,  246,  248-251,  268. 

St.  Louis,  27,  151,  158-160,  164,  169; 
River,  106,  157,  164. 

St.  Michael,  214. 

St.  Nazaire,  396. 

St.  Paul,  27,  149,  151,  159,  164,  i6g,  252. 

St.  Petersburg,  see  Petrograd. 

St.  Thomas,  234,  242,  266  (Fig.  194),  359. 

Sakhalin,  300,  304,  307. 

Sal,  329. 

Salem,  116,  117. 

Salina  Cruz,  260. 

Salisbury,  357. 

Salmon,  79, 151, 177, 198,211,214,245,301. 

Saloniki,  366,  369.  370,  385- 

Salt,  Austria,  383;  Bahamas,  263;  Califor- 
nia, 188;  Germany,  422;  Iberian  Penin- 
sula, 378;  Iowa,  165;  Italy,  373;  Kansas, 
165;  Louisiana,  143;  Michigan,  123,  165; 
Mexico,  258;  New  York,  123;  Poland, 
383;  Roumania,  369;  Switzerland,  387; 
Texas,  165;  Transcaucasia,  433;  Utah, 
178;  W.  Indies,  264. 

Salt  Lake,  Great,  19,  175,  i77;City,i92,l93. 

Salto,  285. 

Salton  Sink,  179;  salt  piles  in  (Fig.  122), 
189. 

Salvador,  256,  261. 

Salzburg,  374,  383. 

Samara,  343,  43s. 

Samarkand,  436. 

Samoa,  194,  216,  220,  221,  222,  292,  293; 
map  (Fig.  153),  221. 

Samsun,  340,  343. 

Sana,  336. 

San  Antonio,  140,  143. 

San  Bernardino,  193. 

Sandalwood,  India,  329;  New  Guinea,  293; 
Porto  Rico,  231. 

San  Diego,  188,  193. 

Sandstone,  122,  131. 

San  Francisco,  27,  63,  108,  171,  174,  175, 
189,  190,  193,  194,  195,  221,  241,  252, 
260,  280,  293,  298;  Bay,  191,  194. 

San  Joaquin  River,  loi,  193. 

San  Juan,  230,  233. 

San  Luis  Potosi,  258. 

San  Luis  Valley,  177. 

San  Marino,  362. 

San  Pedro,  26,  193;  artificial  harbor  at 
(Fig.  126),  194. 

Santa  Marta  Cesar,  275,  278. 

Santiago,  235,  237,  238,  283,  287. 

Santo  Domingo,  see  Dominican  Republic. 

Santos,  273,  279,  2S6. 

Sao  Francisco,  273;  River,  279. 

Sao  Roque,  28. 


xlii 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Sapan  wood,  225. 

Sapphires,  188. 

Sardines,  iii,  373,  378,  393. 

Sardinia,  373. 

Sarre  Basin,  393. 

Sarsaparilla,  271. 

Saskatchewan  River,  245,  249. 

Satinwood,  265. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  157.  169.  249;  Canal,  74, 

163,  167  (Fig.  103),  168. 
Savannah  [Ga.],  133.  147. 
"Savannah,"  the  (Fig.  36),  76. 
Savanna  Zone,  34. 
Savona,  373. 
Sawakin,  349. 
Saxony,  422,  424. 
Scandinavian    Peninsula,    360,    407-411; 

climate    and    surface,    407;    commerce, 

410,    4n;    exports,    409-411;    imports, 

410;  map  (Fig.  258),  408;  people,  363, 

407;  resources,  408-410. 
Schaffhausen,  388. 
Scheldt  River,  412,  415. 
Schenectady,  122,  129. 
Schools,      industrial      and      commercial, 

Austria-Hungary,    384;    Germany,    418; 

Italy,   373;    Netherlands,   416;   Switzer- 
■     land,  388. 
Schuylkill  River,  127. 
Scotland,  363,  400,  401,  402,  40s;  see  also 

Great  Britain. 
Scranton,  1 19,  122. 

Sea,  unity  of  the,  74;  harvest  of,  78,  79. 
Sea-going    tonnage    of    chief    commercial 

nations  (Fig.  292),  454. 
Seals,  fur,  210;  skins,  79,  198. 
Sea  otter,  198,  210. 
Seaports,   rank   of   world's   greatest    (Fig. 

291),    453;     see    also    under    countries. 
Seattle,  171,  177,  189,  195. 
Seine  River,  394.  395.  396,  415. 
Seleucia,  6,  342. 
Semmering  Tunnel,  385. 
Senegal,  352,  354. 
Seraing,  414. 

Serb-Croat-Slovene  State,  381,  385. 
Serbia,  363,  364,  367,  369,  381,  385- 
Sesame,  315,  329. 
Severn  River,  404. 
Seville,  377,  378,  379. 
Sevres  china,  394. 
Seward  Peninsula,  214,  215,  216. 
Shad,  1 1 1,  198. 
"Shaduf,"    method    of    irrigation    used    in 

EKvpt  (Fig.  232),  345. 
Shanghai,   228,   293.   316.   318,   319,  437; 

native  part  of  water  front  at  (Fig.  215), 

319. 
Shantung,  Peninsula,  317,  319,  320,  322, 

323;  Mountains,  315. 
Shark  fins,  292. 
Sharon,  340. 
Sheboygan,  158. 
Sheep,  70  (Fig.  39),  81,  83;  Africa  81,  351, 

356;  Alaska,  213;  Arabia,  336;  Ardennes 

Plateau,  314;  Argentina,  281;  Asia,  315; 

Australia,   81;   Belgium,  413;   Bohemian 

Plateau,     381;     Central     America,     256; 

Chile,      281;      Falkland      Islands,      281; 

France,  301,  394;  Germany,  420;  Great 

Britain,     81,     401,     402;     Greece,     364; 

Hawaii,    217;     Iberian     Peninsula,    377; 

Iranian  Plateau,  S3-',  Italy,  371;  .Michi- 


gan, I5s;  Montenegro,  367;  Nether- 
lands, 413;  New  South  Wales,  29s;  New 
Zealand,  81,  295;  Ohio,  155;  Oklahoma, 
134;  Rournania,  369;  Russia,  81,  432; 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  409;  Serbia, 
367;  South  America,  81,  270;  Texas, 
134;  Turkey,  81,  339.  368;  U.  S.,  81. 
156,  172,  174, 199;  grazing  (Fig.  106),  173. 

Sheffield,  403. 

Shellac,  329. 

Shenandoah  Valley,  107. 

Shepherds,  camp  of  nomadic  (Fig.  i),  3; 
trade  among,  2,  3. 

Ship,  building,  no,  119,  122,  189,  305,  403; 
of  the  desert,  3;  modern  (Fig.  28),  66;  old 
and  new  in  ocean  steamships  (Fig.  36) ,  76. 

Shoe  manufacturing,  Brazil,  276;  Canada, 
249;  Austria,  383;  France,  394;  bwitzer- 
land,388;  U.  S.,  59,  116,117. 

Shrimps,  133. 

Siam,  326,  327. 

Siberia,  37,  78,  282,  307,  319,  431,  433,  439. 

Siberian  Railway,  435,  436,  437. 

Sicily,  237,  372,  373,  375. 

Sidon,  6,  8,  342. 

Sierras,  21,  loi,  102,  170,  172,  177,  183, 
185,  190,  192,  193. 

Signals,  use  of,  61,  62;  used  by  U.  S. 
Weather  Bureau  (Fig.  26),  61. 

Si-kiang,  313,  322. 

Silk,  8,  12,  35,  445,  446;  artificial,  83;  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  10;  manufactures,  118; 
production  and  value  (Fig.  46),  90; 
raw,  53,  200;  used  in  manufactures  and 
export  of  silk  manufactures  (Fig.  281), 
446;  reeling,  from  cocoons  in  Japan 
(Fig.  206),  305;  wild,  329;  in  Asia,  83; 
Austria,  383,  446;  Bulgaria,  367;  China, 
83.  312,  313.  314.  320,  321,  445,  446; 
Czecho-Slovakia,  383;  France,  302,  394, 
446;  Germany,  423,  446;  Great  Britain, 
402,  446;  Greece,  365;  India,  312;  Iranian 
Peninsula,  333;  Italy,  312,  372,  373.  375. 
382,  445.  446;  Japan,  303,  307,  312,  445, 
446;  Russia,  312,  434,  446;  Switzerland, 
388,  389,  446;  Turkey,  312,  340,  341. 
368;  U.  S.,  118,  446. 

Silver,  9,  21,  95;  Australia,  203,  296; 
Jugo-Slavia,  383;  Belgium,  414;  Canada, 
203,  296;  Central  America,  203;  China, 
315;  Germany,  421;  Greece,  365;  Hon- 
duras, 258;  Japan,  304;  Iberian  Penin- 
sula, 378;  Mexico,  203,  258,  261;  north 
central  Europe,  11,  12;  Ontario,  248;  S. 
America,  203,  283;  Spain,  7;  Sweden, 
409;  Turkey-in-Asia,  341;  U.  S.,  153, 
185,  203,  204,  275;  mines  of  Potosi  and 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  275. 

Simplon  Tunnel,  389,  395. 

Singapore,    27,    218,    228,    241,    325,    326. 

Sioux  City,  159. 

Sipka  (Shipka)  Pass,  367,  368. 

Sisal,  148;  Bahamas,  263;  Hawaii,  218; 
Mexico,  90,  261;  New  Guinea,  293; 
Yucatan,  257,  258. 

Sitka,  210,  280. 

Sivas,  340. 

Skagway,  214. 

Skins,  jjreservation  of,  81,  83. 

Slate,  20,  i.-'2. 

Slavs,  363,  364,  381. 

Smelting  industry,  143,  188. 

Smyrna,  340,  341.  343- 


THE   INDEX 


xliii 


Snake  River,  191. 

Soap,  158,  394. 

Society  Islands,  293. 

Soda,  123. 

Sofia,  369.  370. 

Soil,  civilization  based  on  the,  15;  kinds 
of,  16;  organic  matter  in,  16;  formation 
and  transportation  of,  17;  alluvial,  17; 
glacial,  17,  ISO,  151 ;  map  (Fig.  63),  no; 
loess,  17;  residual,  17;  how  forests  affect, 
22;  hillside  ruined  by  erosion,  where 
forest  had  been  cut  away  (Fig.  8),  23; 
of  North  Atlantic  section,  109,  no; 
Southern  section,  130,  131;  of  North 
Central  section,  150,  151;  scientific 
agriculture  in  Germany,  420;  use  of 
soil   in   European   Russia,   43H;   method 

•    of  using,  map  (Fig.  231),  facing  345. 

Sokoto,  352. 

Solingen,  423. 

Solnhofen,  422. 

Songkoi  River,  326,  327. 

Sorghum,  179. 

South  America,  43;  as  a  whole.  268;  map 
(Fig.  181),  between  268,  269;  popula- 
tion by  races  (Fig.  183),  269;  temper- 
ate, 280-290;  climate,  280;  commerce, 
286,  287;  commercial  relations,  287- 
290;  crops,  282,  283;  forests,  281; 
inhabitants,  283;  manufactures,  284; 
mineral  products,  203,  283;  nitrate 
industry,  284;  physical  features,  280; 
society,  organization  of,  283;  stock 
raising,  281;  transportation,  internal, 
284,  28s;  U.  S.  of,  286;  tropical,  268- 
279;  climate,  268,  269;  crops,  273-275; 
exports,  271,  272,  275;  forest  products, 
271;  grasslands,  270;  inhabitants,  269, 
270;  manufactures,  276;  mineral  re- 
sources, 203,  275;  mountains,  269; 
principal  ports,  278,  279;  rubber  in- 
dustry, 272;  staple  tropical  exports  (Fig. 
185),  272;  transportation,  internal, 
276-278. 

Southampton,  405. 

South  Bend,  106,  158. 

South  Bethlehem,  122. 

South  Chicago,  164. 

South  Omaha,  159. 

South  Willems  Canal,  415. 

Soy  beans,  86.  303,  315. 

Spain,  7,  44,  67,  171,  376-380;  commerce, 
262,  379,  380;  crops  and  products,  86, 
377,  378;  exports,  377,  378  (Fig.  247), 
380;  forest  and  animal  products,  377; 
manufactures,  378;  map  (Fig.  246),  376; 
minerals,  203,  378;  people,  25s,  270,  363. 
378;  possessions,  222,  350,  359,  379, 
380. 

Spice  Islands,  324. 

Spices,  8,  12,  114,  226. 

Spinning  Jenny,  401. 

Spokane,  170,  181,  189,  190,  193. 

Sponges,  79;  Africa,  351;  Bahamas,  263; 
Florida,  133;  Greek  Islands,  364; 
Turkish  Islands,  340. 

Springfield  [111.],  164;  [Mass.],  119;  [Ohio], 
1 11). 

Spruce,  84,  112,  IS3,  198,  245. 

Squirrels,  83,  308. 

Stanley  Falls,  354. 

Starch,  80,  159. 

Stassfurt,  93,  420,  422. 


Steamboat  furthered  work  of  unification, 

108. 

Steamships,  ocean,  75;  the  old  and  the  new 
(Fig.  36),  76. 

Steel,  92,  93,  94;  Austria,  383;  Belgium, 
314;  Chile,  284;  France,  447;  Germany, 
423,  447;  Krupp  steelworks  (Fig.  269), 
423;  Great  Britain,  447;  Russia,  447; 
Switzerland,  389;  U.  S.,  119,  122,  164, 
189,  206,  447;  steel  works  at  Pittsburgh 
(Fig.  72),  121. 

Steelton  [Pa.],  122. 

Stettin,  423,  427. 

Steyr,  383. 

Stimulants,  89,  90. 

Stockholm,  409,  410. 

Stock  industry,  Australasia,  294,  295;  S. 
America,  270,  281;  U.  S.,  134,  155,  156, 
171-174;  western  stock  ranges  (Fig. 
105),  172;  see  also  Live  stock. 

Stockton,  189,  191. 

Stoke-upon-Trent,  403. 

Stone,  91;  precious,  95,  188. 

Stonehenge,  91. 

Stourbridge,  10. 

Strassburg,  425. 

Structural  material,  0I«  92. 

Struma,  370. 

Sturgeon,  151,  333,  433. 

Stuttgart,  424. 

Subsidies,  government,  44. 

Substitution,  influence  of,  54,  55. 

Subways,  and  tunnels  in  N.Y.  (Fig.  77), 127. 

Sudan,  34,  348,  352,  355. 

Sudbury,  247. 

Suez  Canal,  6,  8,  13,  28,  73,  74,  167,  240, 
241,  250,  298,  ii2,  337,  348,  349,  358, 
366,  374.  30^,  404- 

Sugar,  89,  441,  442;  industry  of  the  world 
(Fig.  278),  442;  beet,  51,  54,  55,  441, 
442;  Austria-Hungary,  442;  Belgium, 
413;  Bohemia,  382;  California,  181,  igo. 
442;  Denmark,  411;  Europe,  236,  263; 
France,  392,  442;  CTcrmany,  89,  421),  421, 
442;  Holland,  413;  Iberian  Peninsula, 
377;  Italy,  372;  Michigan,  154;  New 
York,  114,  154;  Russia,  431,  433,  442; 
U.'  S.,  201,  442;  Wisconsin,  154;  cane, 
35,  55.  44I1  442;  Africa,  356;  Argentina, 
282;  Australia,  296;  Barbados,  264; 
Central  America,  256;  China,  313;  Cuba, 
89,  201,  236,  237,  263,  442;  Egypt,  346; 
Fiji,  293;  Haiti,  265;  Hawaii,  lyo. 
218,  219,  442,  gathering  sugar  cane 
(Fig.  150),  218;  India,  89,  442;  Indian 
Ocean,  Islands  of,  359;  Java.  324,  442; 
Louisiana  131,  139;  Philippines,  225, 
227,  228;  Porto  Rico,  232,  442;  S. 
America,  274,  442;  Taiwan,  303;  Trini- 
dad, 264;  Virginia,  105;  U.  S.,  442; 
West  Indies,  262,  266,  3(^2;  field  of,  with 
central  mill  in  Cuba  (Fig.  165),  236; 
exports  of,  from  Austria-Hungary, 
Belgium,  Cuba,  Dutch  East  Indies, 
France,  Gerni.'iny,  S.  America  (Fig. 
278),  442;  refining,  114,  143,  iSo,  284, 
383.  402. 

Sulphur,  China,  315;  Iberian  Peninsula, 
378;  Italy.  143;  Jajian,  304;  Louisiana, 
143;  Mexico,  258;  Sicily,  373;  produc- 
tion of  the  world  (Fig.  90),  143. 

Sulphuric  acid,  55. 

Sultanabad,  i.',?,. 


xliv 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Sulu,  228;  Sea,  224. 

Sumac,  199,  371. 

Sumatra,  324,  325. 

Sungari  River,  314. 

Sunshine,  possible  hours  of,  map  (Fig. 
171),  244. 

Superior,  27,  157,  168,  252;  Lake,  100,  121, 
161,  167,  252;  iron  and  copper  district, 
161,  163,  247,  249,  map  (Fig.  99),  161. 

Surabaya,  325. 

Suram  Tunnel,  435. 

Susitna  Valley,  212,  216. 

Susquehanna  River,  99,  112,  127,  128,  129. 

Swansea,  403. 

Swatow,  318. 

Sweden,  12,  389,  407,  409-412;  map 
(Fig.  258),  408;  see  also  Scandinavian 
Peninsula. 

Sweet  potatoes,  86. 

Swine,  Austria-Hungary,  81;  Balkan  Pe- 
ninsula, 81;  China,  314;  Denmark,  81; 
France,  81,  391;  Germany,  81,  420; 
Iberian  Peninsula,  377;  Roumania,  381; 
Russian  Empire,  81;  Serbia,  367;  S. 
America,  8^1;  U.  S.  81,  133,  156,  199. 

Switzerland,  90,  386-389,  413;  com- 
merce, 389;  exports,  80,  387  (Fig.  252), 
389;  government,  386;  manufactures, 
388;  map  (Fig.  250),  386;  natural 
resources,  386-388;  "playground  of 
Europe,"  387;  population,  450,  451; 
railway  mileage,  452;  surface,  386; 
trade  routes,  374,  385,  389. 

Sycamore,  133. 

Sydney  [Australia],  221,  241,  293,  295,  298; 
[N.  S.],  249. 

Syra,  366. 

Syracuse,  122,  123,  129. 

Syria,  7,  340,  342,  350;  map  (Fig.  228),  338. 

Syrup,  89,  159. 

Tabriz,  333. 

Tacoma,  180,  igo,  195. 

Tagus  River,  377,  379. 

Tahiti,  292,  293. 

Tairen  (Dalny),  320,  436. 

Taiwan  (Formosa),  301,  304.  306,  307,  318; 
products,  303,  312. 

Tamatave,  359. 

Tampa,  144,  149. 

Tampico,  259,  260. 

Tampico,  or  ixtle,  fiber,  257. 

Tanana  Valley,  214,  215. 

Tanganyika,  Lake,  354. 

Tangier,  351. 

Tanjong  Priok,  325. 

Tanning  industry,  116,  144,  160. 

Tapioca,  86,  273,  325. 

Tar,  133. 

Taro,  86,  218. 

Tasajo,  284. 

Tashkend,  436. 

Tasmania,  293,  294,  296,  298. 

Tate,  142. 

Tauern,  385. 

Taunton,  117. 

Taxation,  reform  needed,  209;  system  of,  44* 

Tea,  34.  35.  53.  442,  443;  Africa,  356;  Cey- 
lon, 312,  314,  329,  330,  443;  Chi:. a,  89, 
312,  313.  314.  320,  321,  32Q,  443;  India, 
312,  329,  332,  443;  Indo-China,  326; 
Iranian  Plateau.  334;  Japan,  303,  307, 
312,324,329,443;   Russia.  433;   Taiwan, 


303.  312,  329;  U.  S.,  142;  the  principal 
consumers,  443;  exports,  sources  of  (Fig. 
222),  329;  gathering,  near  Kyoto  (Fig. 
205),  304;  picking,  at  Summerville  (Fig. 
88),  141;  transportation  of,  317. 

Teak,  281;  Burma,  329;  elephants  haul- 
ing logs  in  Burma  (Fig.  221),  328;  Indo- 
China,  326. 

Teheran,  343. 

Tehuantepec,  254,  260. 

Telegraph,  the,  62,  cable  and  postal  routes, 
map  (Fig.  52),  facing  98. 

Telephone,  the,  62,  63,  389. 

Temperature  belts,  in  U.  S.  (Fig.  56),  loi; 
of  the  world  (Fig.  16),  facing  30. 

Tennessee  Rivet,  147;  Water  Gap,  149. 

Terneuzen  Canal,  415. 

Terni,  373- 

Terra-cotta,  123. 

Terre  Haute,  i6o. 

Tete,  357. 

Teutonic  nations,  363. 

Textile  fibers,  production  and  value  of 
leading   (Fig.   46),   90. 

Textile  industry,  Austria,  383;  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia,  383;  France,  394;  Great  Britain, 
401,  402;  Japan,  307;  Mexico,  259;  Rus- 
sia, 434;  Spain,  378;  U.  S.,  117,  118,  206. 

Thames  River,  404. 

Thessaly,  365,  366. 

Thracian  Plain,  368. 

Tibesti,  352. 

Tibet,  311,  314.  331- 

Tientsin,  317-319. 

Tiflis,  434,  435. 

Tigris  River,  5,  6,  332,  334,  335,  338,  343. 

Tilbury  Docks,  404. 

Tile,  92;   tiling,  art,  165. 

Tillers  of  the  soil,  trade  among,  3,  5. 

Timber,  mfg.,  Canada,  202;  Porto  Rico, 
232;  Roumania,  369;  Russia,  438; 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  408,  409;  U.S., 
157,  158,  197,  198,  202;  raft  on  Colum- 
bia ready  for  towing  (Fig.  123),  190; 
see  also  Forests,  under  countries. 

Timbuktu,  352. 

Time  belts,  46;   map  (Fig.  23),  46. 

Timor,  324. 

Tin,  7,  II,  93,  95;  Alaska,  212;  Australia, 
296,  325;  Banka,  325;  Billiton,  325; 
Bolivia,  275,  325;  China,  315;  Dutch 
East  Indies,  325;  Great  Britain,  400, 
403;  Malay  Peninsula,  296,  325;  world's 
production  of  (Fig.  219),  325. 

Tinian,  291. 

Tobacco,  36,  51,  54;  Austria-Hungary, 
136,  382;  Africa,  351;  America,  89; 
Belgium,  413;  Brazil,  136;  Bulgaria, 
367;  Canada,  246;  China,  313;  Chosen, 
308;  Cuba,  136,  236;  Dutch  East  Indies, 
136;  France,  392;  Greece,  365;  Ger- 
many, 421;  Haiti,  265;  Hawaii,  218, 
219;  Italy,  373;  Japan,  303,  305; 
Latakia,  340;  Mexico,  257;  Missouri, 
154;  New  Caledonia,  293;  Ohio,  154; 
Paraguay,  282;  Philippines,  225,  227, 
228;  Porto  Rico,  231-233;  Russia,  136, 
432;  Samsun,  340;  S.  America,  274, 
275;  Sud^n,  352;  Sumatra,  324;  Tur- 
key, 136,  340.  368;  U.  S.,  114,  130,  134- 
136,  197,  200;  yield  of,  per  square  mile 
(Fig.  82),  135;  Virginia,  105,  139,  I97; 
Wisconsin,    154;   industry   of   the   world 


THE    INDEX 


xlv 


(Fig.  83),  136;  manufacture  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  383;  Cuba,  144,  237;  Russia, 
433;  Spain,  378;  U.  S.,  114,  115,  144; 
market,  principal,  427. 

Tokyo,  303.  306,  307,  309. 

Toledo,  159,  160,  164,  166. 

Tolu,  271. 

Tongking,  326. 

Tonka  beans,  271. 

Tons  and  tonnage,  xiii. 

Topaz,  188. 

Topeka,  159. 

Topolobampo,  260. 

Toronto,  169,  249,  251. 

Tortoise  shells,  79,  292,  325. 

Tortosa,  379. 

Toulon,  396. 

Toulouse,  392,  395. 

Tourmaline,  Brazil,  275;    California,   188. 

Toys,  mfg.,  422,  424. 

Trade,  among  savage  tribes,  i ;  among 
hunters  and  fishers,  2;  among  shep- 
herds, 2,  3;  among  tillers  of  the  soil, 
3,  5;  domestic,  beginning  of,  2;  domestic, 
flourished,  s;  left  to  subject  peoples,  9; 
routes  to  the  Orient,  ancient  and 
mediaeval,  map  (Fig.  3),  facing  10; 
routes  to  the  north  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, mediasval,  map  (Fig.  4),  facing 
11;  routes,  shifting  of,  12,  13;  make  and 
unmake  cities,  13;  routes  to  East  blocked 
by  Turks  ended  Mediterranean  and 
introduced  Oceanic  Age  of  commerce, 
13;  in  Asia  and  Africa,  41;  see  also 
Trade  routes  under  countries. 

Trails,  the  first  overland,  106,  107. 

Transcaucasia,  432,  433,  434,  435. 

Transportation,  how  lowlands  affect,  18; 
upland  valleys  affect,  19,  20;  mountains 
affect,  20;  the  development  of,  59-77; 
influence  of,  59;  communication  by 
messengers,  59-60;  the  post,  60,  61; 
use  of  signals  (Fig.  26),  61;  telegraph, 
62;  telephone,  62,  63;  tests  of,  63; 
methods  of,  63,  64;  human  poncrage, 
64;  transportation  by  man  power  (Fig. 
27),  65;  pack  animals,  65;  wheeled 
transportation,  66;  in  the  desert, 
6s;  modern  "ship  of  the  desert"  (Fig. 
28),  66;  the  old  way  (Fig.  29),  66; 
construction  of  roads,  67;  mud  road  and 
same  road  macadamized  (Fig.  30),  68; 
the  railroad,  _  69,  70;  fifteen  years' 
development  in  locomotives  (Fig.  31), 
69;  trolley  lines  in  the  Middle  West 
(Fig.  32),  70;  modern  progress  in  trans- 
portation (Fig.  33),  71;  pipe  lines,  70, 
72;  inland  navigation,  72,  73;  ship 
canals,  73,  74;  ocean  navigation,  74- 
76;  modern  steel  sailing  ship  (Fig.  35), 
75 ;  old  and  new  in  ocean  steamships 
(Fig.  36),  76;  how  transportation  rates 
are  fixed,  76,  77;  good  transportation 
essential  for  unification  of  a  country, 
108;  as  a  factor  in  international  com- 
merce, 452-454;  in  China.  316,  317; 
on  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Rivers,  165, 
166;  rail  and  inland  water  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  Belgium,  Canada,  France, 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  Russia,  United 
States,  xviii,  xix;  see  also  under  countries, 

Transvaal,  356,  357. 

Transylvania,  369,  381. 


Treaties,  reciprocity,  of  1866,  253;  of 
1903,  238. 

Trebizond,  334.  343. 

Trejevna  Pass,  370. 

Trenton,  27,  122,  123,  165. 

Trentino,  382. 

Trepang,  Australia,  294;  Malaysia,  325; 
Oceania,  292. 

Tres  Cruces  Pass,  285. 

Trieste,  28,  374,  375,  385. 

Trinidad,  263,  264,  272. 

Tripoli,  351. 

Tripolitania,  349. 

Trolley  car,  which  made  speed  of  130  miles 
an  hour  (Fig.  270),  425;  lines  in  Middle 
West  (Fig.  32),  70. 

Tromso,  411. 

Tronhjem,  411. 

Trout,  lake,  245. 

Troy,  IIS,  118,  129. 

Troyes,  10. 

Truckee-Carson  project  (Fig.  109),  176. 

Truffles,  392. 

Tsinan,  322. 

Tsingtau  (or  Chingtao),  322. 

Tucacas,  278. 

Tucuman,  282. 

Tulu,  434;   coal  fields,  433,  434. 

Tungsten,  185. 

Tunis,  349,  350,  351. 

Tunny  fish,  351,  373.  378. 

Turin,  27,  373,  374.  395- 

Turkestan,  311,  432,  436. 

Turkey,  6,  60,  335.  336,  362,  367,  368,  385; 
-in-Asia,  337-341;  commerce,  341;  ex- 
ports, 339,  341;  products,  312,  339,  340, 
341;  irrigation,  need  of,  339,  340;  man- 
ufactures, 341;  mineral  resources,  341; 
-in-Europe,  368-369;  commerce,  368; 
exports,  368;  resources,  368. 

Turkish  rugs,  341,  368. 

Turks,  12,  363;   conquests,  effects  of,  13. 

Turpentine,  84,  133,  198,  199,  302;  and 
rosin,  sources  of,  entering  international 
commerce  (Fig.  79),  132;  orcharding, 
new  methods  of  (Fig.  80),  133. 

Turquoise,  Arizona,  188;  New  Mexico,  188; 
Nishapur,  333. ' 

Turtles,  133. 

Tuscany,  373. 

Tutuila,  221;    (Fig.  11),  25.     . 

Tuxpan,  259. 

Twentieth  Century  Limited  (Fig.  33a),  71. 

Tyre,  6,  7,  8,  342. 

Tyrol  (Trentino),  382. 

Uea  (Wallis)  Island,  292. 

Ukrainia,  432. 

Ulm,  425. 

Union,  Bonds  of,  107,  108. 

Union  of  South  Africa,  commerce  of 
(Fig.  237),  358. 

Union  Pacific,  driving  last  spike  on,   108. 

United  States,  37,  240,  275,  389;  making 
of  the,  98-108;  physical  divisions,  map 
(Fig.  54),  facing  99;  relation  of  physiog- 
raphy to  population  (Fig.  55),  99; 
coastal  plain  and  Appalachian  Highland, 
99,  100;  Central  Plain,  100;  Cordilleran 
Highland,  100,  101;  climate,  101,  102; 
temperature  belts  (Fig.  56),  loi;  mean 
annual  rainfall  (Fig.  57),  103;  people, 
103,    104;     density   of   population,   map 


dvi 


COM  MERC  I A  L    GF.OCRA  PH  Y 


(Fir.  s8),  104;  northern  and  southern 
types  of  agriculture,  105,  106;  early 
importance  of  water  wa\s,  106;  inland 
water  ways,  map  (Fig.  62),  facing  109; 
first  overland  trails,  106,  107;  early 
highways  to  the  West  (Fig.  50),  107; 
bonds  of  union,  107,  108;  map  (Fig.  61), 
between  108,  log;  areas  originally 
wooded  and  National  Forest  Reserves, 
map  (Fig.  60),  facing  108;  continental 
U.  S..  by  sections  (Fig.  64),  m;  North 
Atlantic  Section,  109-129;  climate  and 
surface.  109;  soil,  109,  no;  glacial  soils, 
map  (Fig.  6,?),  no;  early  industries, 
no,  111;  fisheries,  in,  112;  American 
fishmg  banks  in  Atlantic,  map  (Fig. 
65),  112;  forest  products,  112,  113; 
fanning,  113,  114;  distribution  of  hay 
(Fig.  66),  113;  industries  using  farm 
products,  114,  115;  why  manufactures 
flourish,  115,  116;  mechanical  power 
used  in  manufactures  (Fig.  67),  115; 
long  distance  transmission  of  electric 
power  from  Niagara  Falls  (Fig.  68), 
116;  water  power  at  Niagara  (Fig.  69), 
117;  leather  manufactures,  116,  117; 
textile  manufactures,  117,  118;  mineral 
industries,  118,  119;  mineral  fuels,  95, 
119,  120;  coal  fields  (Fig.  70),  120; 
i'\\  and  gas  fields  (I-'ig.  71),  121;  iron, 
industry,  120-122;  steel  works  at  Pitts- 
burgh (Fig.  7j1,  121;  other  mineral 
industrit'S,  122  123;  portland  cement 
(Fig.  7,0,  12,5;  seaports,  123-127; 
Boston  Harbor  (Fig.  74),  124;  percent- 
age of  foreign  commerce  handled  by 
leading  seaports  (Fig.  75),  125;  New 
York  Harbor  (Fig.  76),  126;  canals, 
127,  128;  subways  and  tunnels,  N.  Y.,_ 
(Fig.  77),  127;  railway  routes  to  the" 
West,  128,  129;  Southern  Section,  130- 
149;  Southern  people.  130;  surface  and 
soil,  130,  131;  southern  climate,  131, 
132;  forest  and  fishery  products,  132, 
133;  sources  of  turpentine  and  rosin 
entering  international  commerce  (Fig. 
70),  1,52;  new  method  of  turpentine 
orcharding  (Fig.  80),  133;  live  stock 
in  the  South,  133,  134;  Te.xas  cattle 
(Fig.  81),  IJ4;  tobacco  belt,  134-136; 
distriliulion  of  crop  (Fig.  82),  135; 
tobacco  industry  of  the  world  (Fig.  83), 
136;  cot1r)n  liflt,  00,  136,  137;  raw  cotton 
and  cotton-Sf  I'd  oil  (Fig.  84),  136;  distri- 
bution of  cotton  cri.p  (Fig.  85),  137; 
picking  cotton  (Fig.  86),  138;  destina- 
tion of  U.  S.  cotton  crop  (Fig.  gi),  144; 
export  of  cotton  goods  per  spindle 
(I''ig.  251),  387;  cotton  manufactures, 
444,  445  (Fig.  270),  444;  rice  and  sugar 
belt,  139;  finis''ecl  rice  threshing  (Fig. 
87).  130;  sugar  industry  of  the  world, 
441,442  (Fig.  278),  44.';  other  Southern 
cr'.ps,  140  142;  picking  tea  (Fig.  88), 
141;  mineral  products,  142,  143;  phos- 
jjhati'-ruck  production  (Fig.  8q),  142; 
suljj'iur  prridurtion  (F'ig.  00),  143; 
Alabama  cjal  and  iron  region  (Fig.  92), 
Its;  inaMufactuns,  143-145;  com- 
liun  i;ii  crnurs,  145  149;  New  Orleans 
Harbor  (I',;..  (;^),  r.)7;  North  Central 
section,  150  169;  people,  150;  climate, 
150;     -'i'.   150   151;    furs  and  fish,   151; 


forests,  151,  153;  grain,  153,  154;  yield 
of  (Fig.  96),  153;  evolution  of  grain 
harvesting  (Fig.  95),  152;  other  crops, 
154.  155;.  flax-seed  crop  (Fig.  97),  154; 
stock  raising,  155,  156;  dairy  products, 
156;  manufactures,  156-158;  westward 
migration  of  centers  of  population, 
agriculture,  and  manufactures  (Fig.  98), 
157;  meat  packing,  158,  159;  grain 
products,  159;  other  manufactures,  160; 
mineral  fuels,  160;  lead  and  zinc,  161; 
gold  and  copper,  161,  163;  Lake 
Superior  iron  and  copper  districts  (Fig. 
99),  161;  iron  ore,  163;  modern  method 
of  handling  Lake  Superior  iron  ore 
(Figs,  100,  loi),  162,  163;  manufactures 
of  iron  and  steel,  164;  other  mineral 
products,  165;  water  ways,  165-167; 
fleet  of  barges  carrying  coal  down  the 
Ohio  (Fig.  102),  166;  commercial  cen- 
ters, 167-169;  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal 
(Fig.  103),  168;  Western  section,  170- 
19s;  "Winning  of  the  West,"  170; 
"  Land  of  little  rain,"  170;  Pacific  Slope, 
171;  stock  raising,  171-174;  artesian 
well  (Fig.  104),  171;  western  stock 
rariges  (Fig.  105),  172;  grazing  industry 
(Fig.  106),  173;  other  animal  industries, 
174;  forests,  174,  175;  flume  for  convey- 
ing timber  out  of  the  mountains  (Fig. 
107),  174;  fisheries,  175,  177;  irrigation, 
I77>  179;  irrigated  areas  (Fig.  108), 
175;  opening  of  first  irrigation  canal, 
Truckee-Carson  project  (Fig.  109),  176; 
irrigating  a  field  (Fig.  no),  177;  picking 
raisin  grapes  (Fig.  11 1),  1 78;  •  relief  map 
of  lower  Colorado  Valley  (Fig.  112), 
180;  irrigated  hop  yard  (Fig.  116),  183; 
dry  farming,  179,  180;  dry  land  areas 
(Fig.  113).  181;  districts  producing 
durum  wheat  (Fig.  114),  181;  agricul- 
tural products,  181,  183;  farming  by 
steam  (Fig.  115),  182;  fruit  industry  in 
California  (Fig.  117),  184;  young  date 
orchard  (Fig.  118),  1S3;  mineral  prod- 
ucts, 183,  185,  188;  location  of  principal 
mineral  deposits  (Fig.  119),  186; 
modern  gold  dredge  at  work  (Fig. 
120),  187;  oil  wells  and  derricks  (Fig. 
121),  188;  salt  piles  in  Salton  Sink  (Fig. 
122),  189;  manufactures,  188-190; 
timber  raft  on  the  Columbia  (Fig. 
123),  iQo;  transportation  facilities,  191, 
192;  early  highways  to  the  Pacific 
(Fig.  124),  loi;  inland  commercial 
centers,  192;  sacked  wheat  at  Water- 
villc.  Wash.  (Fig.  123),  192;  seaports, 
193-195;  artificial  harbor  at  San  Pedro 
(Fig.  126),  194;  United  States  in  the 
markets  of  the  world,  196-209;  founda- 
tions of  commerce,  196;  density  of  rail- 
ways (Fig.  127),  facing  196;  staple 
products,  196,  197;  map  of  areas  pro- 
ducing commercial  staples  (Fig.  128), 
between  196,  197;  foreign  commerce 
(Fig.  130).  197;  fish  and  furs,  197,  198;' 
fishing  industry  (Fig.  131),  108;  forest 
products,  199;  luml^er  industry  (Fig. 
132^  loS;  Ii\-e  stock  products;  199,  200; 
crop  products, 200,  201;  value  of  all  crops 
(Fig.  133),  199;  agricultural  industry 
(Fig.  134)  200;  exports  (Fig.  130),  197; 
fishing    (Fig.    131),    198;    lumber    (Fig. 


THE    IXDEX 


xlvii 


132),  198;  farm  products  (Fig.  134).  200; 
crude  minerals  (Fig.  130),  204;  manu- 
factures (Fig.  142).  206;  (Fig.  286), 
450;  growth  of  export  trade  in  (Fig. 
141).  206;  wood  (Fig.  250).  409;  wheat 
and  flnur  (Fig.  277),  441;  cotton  goods 
(Fig.  279),  444;  wool  (Fig.  280),  44s; 
machinery  (Fig.  285),  449;  import  of 
tropical  and  subtropical  products  (Fig. 
135),  201;  imports  (Fig.  130),  197;  fish 
and  furs,  197,  198;  forest  products,  199; 
of  animal  origin,  200;  crop  products, 
201;  commerce  with  foreign  countries 
and  non-contiguous  territory  by  classes 
of  commodities,  xx;  growth  of  popula- 
tion (Fig.  136),  201;  population  of 
principal  commercial  countries  (Fig. 
287),  450;  occupations  of  people  (Fig. 
288),  451;  why  agricultural  exports  must 
eventually  decline,  201,  202;  mineral 
products,  202-204;  value  of  minerals 
raised  (Fig.  137),  202;  world  production 
of  minerals  (Fig.  138),  203;  mineral 
industry  of  U.  S.  (Fig.  139),  204;  iron 
industry  of  the  world  (Fig.  282),  447; 
annual  production  of  pig  iron  (Fig.  284), 
449;  manufactured  products,  204,  205; 
rank  of  nations  in  manufactures,  448- 
452;  proportional  value  and  density  of 
manufactures  (Fig.  14.1),  205;  manu- 
facturing industries  (Fig.  142),  206; 
growth  of  export  trade  (Fig.  141),  206; 
exports  of  manufactures  (Fig.  286),  450; 
why  foreign  markets  are  necessary,  205, 
206;  where  they  may  be  found,  206,  207; 
trade  with  Canada,  288;  trade  with  S. 
America,  288-290;  relations  with  China, 
321;  with  Cuba,  234;  with  Haiti  and 
Dominican  Republic,  265;  merchant 
vessels,  454;  tonnage  of  merchant  ma- 
rine (Fig.  261),  410;  sea-going  tonnage 
(Fig.  292),  454;  railway  mileage,  452, 
453;  rail  and  inland  water  transporta- 
tion, xviii;  conservation  of  natural  re- 
sources, 207-209;  purchase  of  Danish 
West  Indies,  242,  266,  412;  expansion 
in  the  Pacific,  210-228;  expansion  in  the 
Caribbean,  229-242;  see  also  under 
names  of  products. 

Ural  Mountains,  430,  433,  435. 

Urga,  318,  319.  323. 

Uruguay,  270,  281,  283-286;  River,  286. 

Uspallata  Pass,  285. 

Utica,  118,  129. 

Uyuni,  285. 

Valdai  Plateau,  434. 

Valdez,  215. 

Valdivia,  280,  284,  285. 

Valencia,  278,  377,  378,  379. 

Valenza,  374. 

Valparaiso,  285,  287. 

Vancouver,  249,  252. 

Vanilla,  88,  89;  Central  America,  256; 
Hawaii,  218;  Indian  Ocean,  Islands  of, 
359;  Philippines,  226;  Tahiti,  293. 

Van  Reenens  Pass,  357. 

Vardar  Valley,  367,  369. 

Varna,  370. 

Vaseline,  96. 

Vegetation  belts  of  the  world,  natural 
(Fig.   17),  facing  31. 

Venezuela,  34,  269,  272,  275. 


Venice,    12,    26,    371,    374,    375;    1,  .idint; 

commercial     city     of     the     world,      1  i ; 

school  of  commerce  at,  373. 
Vera  Cruz,  254,  2sf',  259. 
Vermillion,  163. 
Verviers,  413,  414. 
Victoria,  295,  297;  Falls,  356,  357;  Nyanza, 

354- 
Vicuiia,  83,  270. 
Vienna,   27,   374.  379.  3S3.  384,  3^5.   395. 

396,  426. 
Vieques  (Crab)  Island,  23. 
Virgin  Islands,  266,  xiv,  xviii. 
Vistula  River,  425,  426,  434,  84. 
Vladivostok,     314,     318,     426,     438;     tht 

terminus    of    the    great     Trans-Siberian 

Railway  (Fig.  274),  436. 
Vodena,  365. 

Volga  River,  432,  433,  434,  435,  437. 
Volos,  366. 

Vosges  Mountains,  394,  395,  426. 
Vuelta  Abajo,  tobacco,  236. 

Wabash  River,  106. 

Waco,  143. 

Wady  Haifa,  348,  349. 

Wakamatsu,  305. 

Wales,  363,  400,  401;  see  also  Great 
Britain. 

Walnut,  85,  133,  183,  372,  392. 

Walrus,  79,  81. 

Waltham,  1 19. 

Wankies  Field,  356. 

Warnemunde,  412. 

War  of  1812,  effects  of,  no. 

Warsaw,  433,  434,  435. 

Warwick,  117. 

Washington  (D.  C],  38,  146,  210. 

Watches,  France,  394;  Switzerland,  38S; 
U.  S.,  1 19,  164. 

Water  buffaloes,  226. 

Waterbury,  1 19. 

Water  gaps,  19,  20,  100. 

Waterloo,  413. 

Water  power,  how  forests  afTect.  22;  in 
\.  Atlantic  section,  1 15-117;  S.  America, 
276;  Switzerland,  388;  U.  S.,  igo. 

Water  routes,  termini  of  inland,  27. 

Watertown,  112,  115. 

Water  ways,  early  importance  of,  106; 
Canada,  249-251 ;  German\',  426;  Xether- 
lands,  414,  415;  Russia,  434,  435;  U.  S., 
165,  167;  inland,  map  (Fig.  62),  facing 
109;  mileage  in  Austria-Hungary,  Bel- 
gium, Canada,  France,  Germany,  Great 
Britain,  Russia,  United  States,  xviii. 

Wattle,  black,  356. 

Wax  tree,  302;  works,  259. 

Wayne,  Fort,  106,  164. 

Weather  Map  (Fig.  2112),  facing  36. 

Weaving,  7. 

Weeds,  85. 

Weights,  measures,  grading,  44,  45,  xiii. 

Weihaiwei,  323. 

Welland  Canal,  167,  250. 

Wellington,  298. 

Weser  River,  405,  426,  427. 

West  Indies,  86,  149,  229.  238,  262-267, 
270,  272,  392;  climate  and  surface,  262; 
inhabitant.^;,  262;  British,  263;  principal 
ports  of,  264;  Danish,  242,  266,  412; 
Dutch,  242,  266,  267;  French,  266;  map 
(Fig.  194),  facing  290. 


xlviii 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


Westphalia,  420. 

Whalebone,  79. 

Whale  oil,  ss,  79- 

Wheat,  34,  87,  88,  89,  440,  441;  average 
yield  of,  per  acre  (Fig.  276),  440;  Africa, 
351;  Alaska,  214;  Argentina,  285,  441; 
Australia,  299;  Austria-Hungary,  87, 
382,  38s,  440,  441;  Bulgaria,  367;  Can- 
ada, 246,  247,  252,  441,  miles  of  wheat 
in  (Fig.  172),  246;  Central  America,  256; 
Ceylon,  330;  China,  314;  Egypt,  346; 
France,  87,  392,  440;  Germany,  421, 
440;  Great  Britain,  399,  440,  441; 
Greece,  365;  Iberian  Peninsula,  377; 
India,  87,  330,  332,  441;  Iranian  Plateau, 
32,2,;  Italy,  87,  371.  372;  Japan,  303; 
Manchuria,  314;  Mesopotamia,  341; 
Mongolia,  314;  Roumania,  369,  441; 
Russia,  87,  392,  431,  432,  440,  441;  S. 
Amejica,  87,  273,  282,  286;  Syria,  340; 
Turkey,  341,  368;  U.  S.,  15,  51,  52,  59, 
87,  113.  140,  144.  ISO,  154.  159.  170,  174. 
181,  189,  200,  201,  202,  314,  440,  441; 
durum,  179,  373,  districts  producing 
(Fig.  114),  181;  elevator  in  Buenos 
Aires  (Fig.  191),  287;  and  flour,  export 
of  (Fig.  277),  441;  sacked,  at  Water- 
ville.  Wash.  (Fig.  125),  192;  world  crop 
(Fig.  43),  87. 

Wheeling,  122,  145. 

Whisky,  88,  90,  402. 

Whitefish,  151,  245. 

Whiting,  160. 

Wichita,  159. 

Wilderness  Road,  Boones,  107. 

"Wild  Rose"  Pass,  369. 

Wilkes-Barre,  119. 

Willamette  River,  loi,  174,  191. 

William,  Fort,  250,  251. 

Williamsport,  112. 

Wilmington,  147;  [Del.],  114,  116,  122; 
[X.  C],  143;  Harbor  [Cal.],   193. 

Wilton  carpets,  402. 

Windmill,  and  reservoir  for  watering  cattle 
on  high  plains  (Fig.  io6a),  172. 

Winds,  relation  of,  to  commerce,  31,  32; 
cause  of,  32;  prevailing  winds  and  cli- 
matic belts,  32,  33;  prevailing  surface 
winds  of  the  world  (Fig.  19),  2,3',  seasonal 
migration  of  (Fig.  20),  34;  brave  west,  36; 
horse  latitudes,  32;  monsoon,  35;  prevail- 
ing westerlies,  32;  trade,  32,  34,  35,  36; 
cause  of  trade  (Fig.  iS),  32. 

Wine,  8,  85,  90;  France,  396;  Greece,  365; 
Hungary  (Tokay),  382;  Itacrian  Penin- 
sula, 377;  Italy,  372,  375;  Madeira 
Islands,  358;  Portugal,  379;  Spain,  379; 
U.  S.,  183. 

Winnipeg,  250,  252;  Lake,  loo,  246,  252. 

Winona,  157. 

Winston-Salem,  144. 

Wisconsin  River,  106,  166. 

Woburn,  1 16. 

Wonsan  (Gcnsan),  309. 

Wood,  carved  and  inlaid,  315,  388;  exports 
(Fik'-  259),  409;  oil,  312;  pulp,  112,  IS7, 
199,  383,  (Fig.  260),  409. 

Wool,  18,  59,  83,  124,  200,  445,-446;  pro- 
duction and  value,  90;  industry  of  the 
world  (Fig.  280),  445;  in  Africa,  83,  358, 
445 ;  Argentina,  83,  394.  445;  Asia,  315, 


445;  Australasia,  83,  295,  298,  299,  445; 
Ceylon,  329;  Great  Britain,  401,  44s; 
India,  329;  Iranian  Plateau,  332;  Michi- 
gan and  Ohio,  155;  Russia,  445;  S. 
America,  270,  287;  Spain,  377;  Turkey, 
339;  U.  S.,  83,  172,  445;  manufactures, 
Austria-Hungary,  383,  445;  Belgium,  11, 
414;  Bulgaria,  368;  Czecho-Slovakia, 
383;  France,  394,  445,446;  Germany, 423, 
424,  445,  446;  Great  Britain,  401,  402, 
445,  446;  Italy,  II,  373;  Russia,  434; 
Scotland,  402;  S.  America,  284;  Sweden, 
409;  U.  S.,  117,  118,  190,  445,  446. 

Woonsocket,  1 17. 

Worcester  [Eng.],  403;  [Mass.],  119. 

World,  faces  the  Atlantic,  13;  the  creation 
of  steam  and  electricity,  14;  "world  of 
the  great  forest,"  353,  354;  world 
industry  and  commerce,  440-455;  com- 
merce, two  currents  of,  -;  54-455. 

World  War,  292,  294,  320,  367,  368,  370, 
376,  381,  393.  412,  420,  427,  429, 
430     449. 

Worth,  Fort,  143,  144. 

Wusung,  319. 

Yak,  31S. 

Yalu  River,  308,  312. 

Yams,  86. 

Yangtse-kiang,  311,  317,  318,  319- 

Yanina  (ancient  Dodona),  367. 

Yap,  222,  293. 

Yarmuk  Valley,  342. 

Yenisei,  435. 

Yezo  (Hokkaido),  301,  302,  304. 

Yingtse,  320. 

Yinkow,  320. 

Ylang-ylang,  225. 

Yogo  Gulch,  188. 

Yokohama,  250,  306,  307. 

Yonkers,  126. 

York,  115. 

Youngstown,  122,  164. 

Yucatan,  254,  257,  259. 

Yukon,  212;  River,  loi,  210-216,  249. 

Yunnan,  315,  317,  322,  327. 

Zab  Ala,  342. 

Zabern  (Saverne)  Pass,  395,  426. 

Zacatecas,  258. 

Zambezi  River,  337,  356,  357. 

Zamboanga,  228. 

Zanesville,  165. 

Zanzibar,  344,  354. 

.'..ebra,  356. 

Zinc,  93,  95;  Africa.  351,  356;  Australia, 

296;    Jugo-Slavia,  383;    Belgium,     203, 

414;   France,   393;   Germany,   203,  421; 

Ciret    Britain,    203,    403;    Greece,  365; 

Iberian  Peninsula,  378;  Luxemburg,  429; 

Mexico,  258;  P.assia,  433;  Sardinia  and 

Elba,  373;  Sweden,  409;  U.  S.,  161,  203, 

204;  Wales,  400. 
Zittau,  424. 
Zones,    climatic,    33;    equatorial,    33,    34; 

Frigid,  37;  life,  in  N.  A.  (Fig.  78),  131; 

Sub-equatorial,  34;  Sub-tropical,  35,  36; 

Temperate,  36,  37,  38;  Tropical,  34,  35. 
Zurich,  374,   388,   389;   Federal   Polytech- 

nicum  at,  388. 
Zwickau,  424. 


ADDENDA 


Allied    Powers,    debt    incurred    in    World 

War  by,  462. 
Alsace-Lorraine,  restored  to  France,  457; 

bet'ore  and  after  1871,  map  (Fig.  295), 

facing  459. 
Argentina,  commerce  of,  462. 
Austria-Hungary    and    its    peoples,    map 

(Fig.  2q6),  450. 
Austria,  Republic  of,  e.xten#of  area  of,  458. 


by,  457. 
Bukowina,  part  of  Roumania,  458. 

Central  Powers,  debt  incurred  in  World 
War  by,  462. 

China,  control  of  by  Germany,  457;  com- 
merce of,  463. 

Commerce,  effects  of  World  War  on,  456. 

Czecho-Slovakia,  commerce  of,  458. 

Denmark,  increase  of  territory  of,  458. 

Europe  in  1920,  map  (Fig.  294),  between 
458,  459- 

Finland,  commerce  of,  460;  forests  of,  462; 
trade  with  United  States,  462. 

France,  control  of  Sarre  Valley,  457;  terri- 
tory extended,  457. 

Germany,  loss  of  colonies,  457;  part  of 
Africa  controlled  if  World  War  won,  457; 
nearest  approach  to  realization  of  dream 
of  Mittel-Europa,  map  (Fig.  293),  facing 
458;  debt,  462. 

Great  Britain,  Tanganyika  administered 
by,  457;  debt  of,  462;  commerce,  464. 


Greece,  extent  of  area  of ,  460. 

Hungary,  extent  of  area  of,  458. 

India,  control  of  by  Germany,  457. 
Italy,  control  of  Adriatic,  458;  extent  of 
area  of,  458,  460. 

Lorraine,  iron  ore  in,  465. 

Mesopotamia,   German  highway  through, 

457- 
Mittel-Europa,  map  (Fig.  293),  facing  458. 

Poland,  commerce  of,  462;  extent  of  area, 
of,  462 ;  partitions  of,  map  (Fig.  298) ,  463. 

Prague,  growth  in  population  and  indus- 
tries, 458. 

Roumania,  extent  of  area  of,  458. 
Russia,  conditions  in,  460. 

Serb-Croat-Slovene  Kingdom,  seacoast  of, 

438. 
Syria,  German  highway  through,  457. 

Tanganyika,  administered  by  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Belgium,  457. 

Trans-Baikal,  republic  of,  460. 

Transylvania,  part  of  Roumania,  45S. 

Turkey,  German  highway  through,  4S7; 
extent  of  area  of,  460;  nationalities  in, 
map  (Fig.  297),  461. 

United  States,  trade  with  Finland,  462; 
debt,  462,  464;  commerce,  464. 

World  War,  effects  of,  456;  political  changes 
due  to,  457;  effects  on  commerce,  462; 
debt  of  countries  as  result  of,  462,  464; 
leading  commercial  countries  after,  464. 


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UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  EACILITY 


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